O emprego de compósitos na construção civil, como os de matriz cimentícia e pasta reforçada com fibras, tem se disseminado consideravelmente nos últimos anos. Uma grande variedade de fibras sintéticas, como o polipropileno, tem sido utilizada com sucesso para reforçar compósitos cimentícios. No entanto, o interesse mundial na utilização de produtos com menor impacto ambiental estimula a busca por materiais para substituir fibras sintéticas. As fibras vegetais, biodegradáveis, pode ser ótima alternativa devido à abundância, ao baixo custo, ao menor consumo de energia para sua produção e às propriedades mecânicas apropriadas. Fibra de curauá, planta nativa do estado do Amazonas, com plantações em escala comercial, é usada na fabricação de cordas, cestos ou como reforço em matrizes orgânicas. Suas propriedades mecânicas são semelhantes às de polipropileno. A tecnologia de extrusão é viável nas indústrias de fibrocimento, pois produz compósitos com matriz de alta densidade e ótimo empacotamento, baixa permeabilidade e boa adesão fibra matriz. No entanto, o processo de extrusão bem-sucedido de produtos cimentícios depende principalmente das propriedades reológicas do cimento fresco reforçado com fibras. As fibras vegetais podem promover o sequestro de água e interferir fortemente no escoamento, na coesão e no fluxo de pasta de cimento fresco. A incorporação de fibras vegetais influencia os materiais à base de cimento no estado fresco e afeta propriedades no estado endurecido. Neste contexto, o objetivo da pesquisa é avaliar a influência das fibras de curauá e de polipropileno em propriedades reológicas e em propriedades mecânicas da pasta de cimento fresco. Foram preparadas formulações sem fibras, como referência, e com 1 e 2% de reforço em massa, fibras com comprimento de 6 e 10 mm. Utilizaram-se duas técnicas reológicas: Squeeze flow e reômetro extrusor para analisar o fluxo de pastas cimentícias. Por meio de dados experimentais, como força/deslocamento, e de análise numérica da pressão do reômetro extrusor, foram determinados: tensão inicial de cisalhamento (σ0), limite de cisalhamento (τ0), tensão de escoamento (α) e tensão de cisalhamento (β). As propriedades mecânicas foram determinadas em máquina de ensaio MTS. Módulo de ruptura (MOR), tenacidade à fratura (TFT) e energia de fratura (EF) foram calculados. Os resultados reológicos indicam que a pasta cimentícia reforçada com fibras de curauá apresentou maior força, menor deslocamento e aumento da pressão de extrusão em fibras de curauá em relação às pastas cimentícias reforçadas com fibras de polipropileno. O comprimento das fibras influenciou mais o fluxo da mistura do que o teor de fibra. Compósitos cimentícios reforçados com fibra de polipropileno apresentaram melhores resultados mecânicos de MOR, TFT e EF em relação aos compósitos reforçados com curauá. Após os 200 ciclos de envelhecimento, os resultados mecânicos dos compósitos reforçados com as fibras de curauá diminuíram devido a mineralização das fibras. Os resultados de nanoindentação, como dureza e módulo elástico, aumentaram após os 200 ciclos. As metodologias aplicadas para avaliar o comportamento reológico e mecânico do fibrocimento durante a extrusão facilitará a futura transferência dessa tecnologia ao setor produtivo, com produtos potencialmente de melhor qualidade. / The use of composites in construction, as matrix and paste cement reinforced with fibers, has spread considerably in recent years. A wide variety of synthetic fibers such as polypropylene have been successfully used to reinforce cementitious composites. However, worldwide interest in the use of products with lower environmental impact stimulates the search for materials to replace synthetic fiber. Vegetable fiber, biodegradable, can be a great alternative because of the abundance, low cost, the lowest energy consumption for its production, appropriate mechanical properties. Curauá fiber, native plant from Amazon, with crops on a commercial scale, is used in the manufacture of ropes, baskets or as reinforcement in organic matrix. Its mechanical properties are similar to those of polypropylene. Extrusion technology is feasible in the fibercement industry, because it produces composites with high density matrix and great packaging, low permeability and good adhesion fiber matrix. However, successful extrusion process of cementitious products mainly depends on the rheological properties of fresh cement reinforced with fibers. The vegetable fibers can promote water kidnapping and strongly interfere in the flow, cohesion and fresh cement slurry flow. The incorporation of vegetable fibers influences the based cementitious materials in the fresh state and affects properties in the hardened state. In this context, the objective of the research is to evaluate the influence of curauá and polypropylene fiber in rheological and mechanical properties of fresh cement paste. Formulations without fiber, used as reference, 1 and 2% content by weight of reinforcement, fibers with a length of 6 to 10 mm were prepared. Two rheological techniques were used: Squeeze flow and extruder rheometer to analyze the flow of cement pastes. Through experimental data, as strength/displacement and numerical analysis of the pressure extruder rheometer were determined: yield stress corresponding to zero velocity (σ0), initial shear stress (τ0), effect of the velocity on yield stress (α) and effect of velocity in the shear stress (β). The mechanical properties were determined in MTS testing machine. Modulus of rupture (MOR), fracture toughness (TFT) and fracture energy (EF) were calculated. The rheological results indicate that the cement paste reinforced with curauá fiber showed higher strength, smaller displacement and increased extrusion pressure with curauá fibers compared to cementitious paste reinforced with polypropylene fibers. The length of the fibers influence the flow of the mixture more than the fiber content. Composites reinforced with polypropylene fibers presented higher values of MOR, TFT and EF compared to composites reinforced with curauá fiber. After 200 ageing cycles, the mechanical results of composites reinforced with curauá fibers decreased due to mineralization of the fibers. The nanoindentation results, as hardness and elastic modulus, increased after 200 cycles. The methodologies used to assess the rheological and mechanical behavior of fibercement during extrusion facilitate future transfer of this technology to the productive sector, with potentially higher quality products.

No processo de beneficiamento da vermiculita é gerado um resíduo fino para o qual atualmente ainda não foi desenvolvida uma aplicação que possibilite a utilização em larga escala. Uma alternativa que vem sendo estudada é a associação com cimento Portland em composições de argamassas e concretos, em função da composição química do resíduo: elevada quantidade de alumínio, silício e magnésio, que podem apresentar interações com o ligante. No entanto, em função da elevada área superficial específica, em comparação ao cimento, sua utilização nas composições pode afetar a demanda de água de amassamento e limitar a sua aplicação. Para tanto, uma alternativa é a calcinação deste resíduo fino, assim como é realizado para outras argilas (caulim, por exemplo), para que a área superficial específica (ASE) seja menor e eventualmente ative propriedades pozolânicas na respectiva argila. Deste modo, neste trabalho foram avaliadas as diversas características de pastas cimentícias após adição de resíduo fino de vermiculita: reação química, formação dos produtos hidratados, propriedades reológicas, tanto após a mistura como ao longo da hidratação. Foi verificado que de forma geral a reação química não é afetada após a adição de vermiculita, embora a formação de aluminatos seja intensificada na composição com maior quantidade de resíduo in natura. Com relação ao seu comportamento no estado fresco, foi observado que a maior ASE do resíduo impacta fortemente as propriedades reológicas das pastas, embora que com um teor de 5% as mudanças sejam menores. Utilizando-se dessas mesmas composições para a avaliação do desempenho no estado endurecido de argamassas, foi verificado que não há efeito sobre essas propriedades até 5% de substituição, independentemente do tratamento térmico empregado. Assim, considerando aspectos econômicos de transporte assim como os custos decorrentes da calcinação, pode-se recomendar a adição de 5% de vermiculita in natura sem comprometer o desempenho dos produtos, embora não se possa precisar com os dados obtidos a sua durabilidade ao longo do uso. / In the process to obtaining vermiculite a fine residue is generated, which does not yet have a large-scale application. An alternative that has been studied is the association with Portland cement in mortar and concrete formulations, as a function of the chemical composition of the residue: high amount of aluminium, silicon and magnesium which may have interactions with the binder. However, the residue has a high specific surface area, in comparison to cement, a fact that can increase the water-demand to mix and limit its application. For this, an alternative is the calcination of this fine residue, as it is done for other clays (kaolin, for example), so that the specific surface area (SSA) is smaller and eventually activates pozzolanic properties in the respective clay. Thus, in this work the various characteristics of cement pastes after addition of vermiculite fine residue were evaluated: chemical reaction, formation of the hydrated products, rheological properties, both after mixing and along the hydration. It was verified that in general the chemical reaction is not affected after the addition of vermiculite, although the formation of aluminates is intensified in the composition with greater amount of in nature residue. Regarding its behaviour in the fresh state, it was observed that the higher SSA of the residue strongly impacts the rheological properties of the pastes, although with a 5% content the changes are minimal. Using these same compositions to evaluate the performance in the hardened state of mortars, it was verified that there is no effect on these properties up to 5% of substitution, regardless of the thermal treatment used. Thus, considering the economic aspects of transport as well as the costs of calcination, it is possible to recommend the addition of 5% of vermiculite in nature without compromising the performance of the products, although it is not possible to determine the its durability during the use.

O cimento está entre os materiais mais utilizados no mundo moderno e sua produção deverá crescer nos próximos 40 anos. Esta crescente produção será responsável pela emissão de um grande volume de CO2 na atmosfera, atualmente a indústria cimenteira é responsável mundialmente por 10% das emissões totais de CO2 e pode chegar a 30% em 2050. Portanto, a academia e a indústria estão desenvolvendo estratégias para reduzir este impacto ambiental, uma dessas estratégias é a substituição do clínquer por materiais cimentícios suplementares (MCSs). Para esta estratégia ser efetiva é necessário que estes materiais possuam: (i) viabilidade econômica; (ii) disponibilidade e; (iii) viabilidade técnica. Hoje os materiais suplementares mais utilizados são a escória de alto forno e a cinza volante, mas o aumento na produção do cimento não foi acompanhado pela oferta destes materiais. Assim, outros materiais suplementares estão sendo utilizados pela indústria, como é o caso das pozolanas naturais e artificiais. Portanto o objetivo deste trabalho é estimar a disponibilidade e distribuição geográfica de alguns materiais cimentícios suplementares no Brasil e avaliar a eficiência de seis cimentos pozolânicos comerciais e compará-los com um cimento com alto teor de clínquer quanto a reatividade, demanda de água e indicadores ambientais. Todos os materiais foram fisicamente e quimicamente caracterizados; pastas e argamassas foram analisadas em termos de reatividade, demanda de água e resistência mecânica; finalmente, foram estimados indicadores ambientais e de eficiência. Para pastas e argamassas sem dispersante o cimento com alto teor de clínquer e aqueles com adição de terra diatomácea demandaram mais água que os demais para um mesmo espalhamento, já com adição de superplastificante o cimento REF foi o que demandou mais água. O cimento com alto teor de clínquer foi o mais reativo em todas as idades e apresentou os melhores resultados do indicador de fração de água combinada e indicador de intensidade de ligante. Já para o indicador intensidade de carbono os melhores resultados foram obtidos para os cimentos com alto teor de substituição. No entanto, o estudo mostra que a redução do teor de clínquer não está diretamente relacionada à redução do impacto ambiental do cimento em seu uso, esta redução de impacto também está associada com a eficiência do ligante quanto a sua reatividade e demanda de água. / The cement is one of the most used materials in the modern world and its production should grow in the next 40 years. This growing production will be responsible for issuing a large volume of CO2 on the atmosphere, nowadays the cement industry is responsible worldwide for 10% of the total emissions of CO2 and it can reach 30% in 2050. Therefore, academia and industry are developing strategies to reduce this environmental impact, one of these strategies is the substitution of clinker by supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). For this strategy to be effective it is necessary that these materials possess: (i) economic viability; (ii) availability and; (iii) technical feasibility. Today the most used supplementary materials are the blast furnace slag and fly ash, but the increase in the production of cement was not accompanied by the supply of these materials. Therefore, other supplementary materials are being used by the industry, as is the case of natural and artificial pozzolans. So, the aim of this work is to estimate the availability and geographic distribution of some supplementary cementitious materials in Brazil and evaluate the efficiency of six Portland pozzolan blended cements and compare them with a cement with high clinker content as to reactivity, water demand and environmental indicators. All materials were physically and chemically characterized; pastes and mortars were analyzed in terms of reactivity, water demand and mechanical strength; finally, environmental and efficiency indicators were estimated. For pastes and mortars without dispersant the cement with high content of clinker and those with the addition of diatomaceous earth ordered more water than the others to achieve the same spread, already with the addition of superplasticizer the cement REF was the one that ordered more water than the others. The cement with high clinker content was the most reactive in all ages and presented the best results of the binder efficiency indicator and binder intensity indicator. For the carbon intensity indicator, the best results were obtained for cements with high replacement content. However, the study shows that the reduction of the clinker content is not directly related to the reduction of the environmental impact of the cement in its use, this reduction is also associated with the binder efficiency in means of reactivity and water demand.

La quantité et la distribution de l'eau interstitielle dans l'espace poral des milieux cimentaires sont des marqueurs fondamentaux de la durabilité des structures de Génie Civil en béton. La connaissance de ces grandeurs est également importante pour l'interprétation de certains essais non destructifs mis en œuvre pour évaluer les performances mécaniques des ouvrages ou détecter certains défauts. L'évaluation de la teneur en eau par méthode non-destructive requiert l'utilisation d'une grandeur intermédiaire telle que la permittivité diélectrique. La relation entre cette propriété électromagnétique et la teneur en eau dépend alors de la composition et donc de la formulation du béton. En électromagnétisme, les lois d'homogénéisation permettent de lier la permittivité effective d'un matériau hétérogène avec la permittivité intrinsèque et la fraction volumique de chaque hétérogénéité présente. Afin de pallier le temps important requis pour l'établissement d'une courbe de calibration expérimentale propre à chaque formulation, l'étude présentée propose la mise en place d'une démarche d'homogénéisation de la permittivité pour lier quantité d'eau présente dans un béton et permittivité macroscopique du matériau. Les travaux présentés rapportent la fabrication, la modélisation et l'utilisation de sondes coaxiales ouvertes pour la mesure de la permittivité complexe de matériaux solides et liquides. Le concept d'estimation de la teneur en eau par utilisation de lois d'homogénéisation est validé pour le cas d'un sable partiellement saturé en eau. Au vu des résultats prometteurs obtenus par modélisation analytique, des schémas d'homogénéisation sont combinés lors d'un processus de remontée d'échelle depuis celle des hydrates jusqu'à celle des granulats, en tenant compte de la morphologie de la microstructure. Les propriétés intrinsèques des principaux constituants d'un béton (granulats, hydrates, ciment anhydre) sont alors mesurées par sonde coaxiale et utilisées en données d'entrée du modèle construit. Une bonne cohérence est observée entre parties réelles de la permittivité simulées et mesurées, pour des échantillons de pâtes de ciment, mortiers et bétons. A la différence des lois expérimentales et empiriques, le modèle construit se caractérise par un temps de calcul quasi-instantané et peut être adapté d'une formulation de béton à une autre en fonction du type de ciment utilisé, de la nature et de la quantité de granulats ou encore de la porosité accessible à l'eau du matériau. / Prediction of delayed behavior in concrete can be significantly improved by monitoring the amount and spatial distribution of water within a concrete structure over time. Water content of cement-based materials can also be required to interpret non-destructive tests such as ultrasonic and radar measurements. Electromagnetic properties of heterogeneous and porous materials, such as dielectric permittivity, are closely related to water content. Measurement of these properties is thus a common non-destructive technique used to assess the moisture content, but a calibration curve is required to link the measured permittivity to the saturation degree. This curve can be determined experimentally, or from empirical models. However, the first approach is tedious and time consuming, while the second one is not adapted to concrete. Hence, this contribution proposes an alternative route, relying on electromagnetic homogenization schemes, to connect the macroscopic permittivity of cement-based materials with the water content of the structure. Therefore, different open-ended coaxial probes were designed, modelled and tested in order to perform complex permittivity measurements of both solids and liquids. The homogenization approach is first validated on unsaturated sand. Then, the permittivity of concrete components (aggregates, hydrates, interstitial liquid, anhydrous cement) was assessed by means of coaxial probe measurements. Finally, a specific combination of analytical homogenization laws taking into account the microstructure's morphology of the material is built. Results show that there is a good correlation between the model and measurements acquired on different cement pastes, mortars and concretes, at different saturation degrees. The model is characterized by a quasi-instantaneous calculation time and can be adapted to different concretes depending on cement type, nature and quantity aggregates or porosity.

Cementitious materials with strain-hardening property and high tensile ductility are promising materials on account of their mechanical and durability performances. These materials require special ingredients which make it costly to be used in conventional constructions. Hence, potential applications of Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) generally focus on layered systems or repairs which require the use of ECC together with another material. For it to be used especially as a repair material, it should have sufficient dimensional compatibility for preventing restrained shrinkage cracking. In this thesis, a strain-hardening fiberreinforced cementitious composite, named Engineered Cementitious Composites, was produced with local ingredients and their mechanical performance, dimensional stability properties were investigated. For investigating the effect of materials and mix proportions on mechanical properties, compressive strength, flexural strength with mid-span beam deflections and matrix fracture toughness tests were conducted. For determining the dimensional compatibility properties, autogenous, drying and restrained shrinkage tests were conducted along with tensile creep tests. As a result it was shown that, mechanical and dimensional stability properties are affected by the ingredients and mix proportions. It was shown that especially autogenous shrinkage of mixtures was relatively high which can cause early age cracking. In order to mitigate the adverse effect of autogenous shrinkage, the effect of pre-soaked expanded perlite aggregate replacement on mechanical, shrinkage and dimensional compatibility properties was investigated. As a result it was found out that autogenous shrinkage can be mitigated by the use of pre-soaked expanded perlite aggregate replacement.

This paper focuses on two experimental methods that give indicators linked to the impregnation level of the yarn / matrix interface, in the case of Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC). These methods have been tested on three different glass yarns laid in a cementitious matrix, with three different impregnation levels resulting from the manufacturing process. The first method (comparative mercury intrusion porosity test) is based on the evaluation by mercury intrusion porosity of the pores volume associated to the porosity inside and near the yarn. The second method (flow test) consists in measuring the flow rate of water along the yarn, with imposed flow conditions. The physical parameters measured by these two methods are both related to the pore size and to the porosity of the yarn / matrix interface. The results of the two methods are discussed and drawn in parallel to a qualitative characterization of the yarn matrix interface made by scanning electron microscopy. As a result, the connection between the results of the two methods and the SEM characterization is studied. It is shown how these methods can participate to characterize the yarn impregnation. Limitations of the methods are also discussed.

Le contrôle non destructif in-situ de durabilité des matériaux cimentaires est essentiel à la prédiction et la prévention des défauts de fonctionnement des constructions. Alors que les dégradations, et donc la perte de durabilité, des matériaux cimentaires sont déclenchées et contrôlées par les caractéristiques et les évolutions de leur microporosité, il n'existe pas à notre connaissance de méthode non destructive d'instrumentation in-situ de la microporosité elle-même. Nous proposons un concept innovant d'évaluation de la durabilité des matériaux cimentaires fondé sur l'instrumentation in-situ de leur microstructure. La méthode repose sur l'investigation ultrasonore haute fréquence de micropores individuels au moyen de micro-transducteurs ultrasoniques capacitifs (μ-cMUT) immergés en grand nombre dans le matériau. Le dispositif proposé pour répondre aux multiples contraintes applicatives et technologiques est un μ-cMUT dont la plaque vibrante est constituée d'une couche mince de nanotubes de carbone monoparoi densément alignés. Nous avons traité la question de la pertinence de ce principe d'instrumentation en modélisant par un problème élasto-acoustique microfluidique l'interaction entre la plaque vibrante d'un μ-cMUT et le fluide, air ou eau, contenu dans un pore de taille micrométrique. La spécificité du modèle réside dans la prise en compte du comportement dissipatif du fluide. La résolution de ce problème couplé a nécessité le développement d'une méthode numérique ad-hoc. Nous avons constaté numériquement que la dissipation cause une diminution des fréquences de résonance. La couche limite a une épaisseur importante par rapport à la taille du domaine. Les amplitudes de vibration des plaques sont particulièrement sensibles au contenu des pores et à la géométrie des pores remplis d'eau. Nous en avons déduit que les μ-cMUT proposés pourraient être pertinents dans les matériaux cimentaires pour le suivi de l'hydratation, pour la détection des dégradations et le suivi de leur évolution. Pour étudier la faisabilité d'un μ-cMUT à nanotubes opérationnel à haute fréquence dans l'air et l'eau, nous avons tout d'abord réalisé par diélectrophorèse des dépôts denses et minces de nanotubes bien alignés. Un des dépôts est monocouche, ce qui constitue une performance remarquable pour un dépôt par diélectrophorèse. Nous avons ensuite suspendu les nanotubes, obtenant ainsi des membranes rigides et longues. L'épaisseur de ces membranes suspendues est particulièrement faible et leur facteur de forme particulièrement élevé par rapport à l'état de l'art des cMUT. Nous avons enfin montré par vibrométrie laser que les membranes vibrent à basse fréquence avec des amplitudes atteignant 5 nm pic-à-pic. Il s'agit à notre connaissance de la première mise en évidence de vibrations de nanotubes de carbone monoparoi par vibrométrie laser. Ces résultats démontrent une brique de base essentielle de l'étude complète de faisabilité du dispositif imaginé. Ils indiquent aussi la faisabilité à court terme de microdétecteurs d'air pour le suivi de la microporosité gazeuse des matériaux cimentaires. En regroupant ainsi une étude numérique de pertinence et une étude technologique de faisabilité, la thèse constitue une contribution significative à la mise au point d'une nouvelle méthode de suivi de durabilité de matériaux cimentaires fondé sur l'immersion au coeur du matériau d'un grand nombre de microcapteurs intégrant des nanotechnologies / In-situ non-destructive testing of durability in cementitious materials is essential to the early prediction and prevention of structural failures. Whereas degradations in cementitious materials, and henceforth durability loss, are brought about and controlled by the characteristics and evolutions of microporosity, there isn't to our knowledge any method for the in-situ non-destructive testing of microporosity itself. To evaluate in-situ the durability of cementitious materials, we put forward an innovative concept based on in-situ instrumentation of their microstructure. Individual micropores are to be probed by high-frequency ultrasonic waves generated and detected by capacitive ultrasonic microtransducers (μ-cMUT) embedded in large number within the material. The vibrating plate of the μ-cMUT devices is to be made of a thin layer of densely aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes, in order for the devices to satisfy the applicative and technological requirements. Relevance of this instrumentation method has been studied : we have used an elasto-acoustical model to describe the interaction between the vibrating plate of a μ-cMUT device and the fluid (water or air) filling a pore of micrometric size. The specificity of this model lies in the integration of fluid viscosity. It has required us to develop ad-hoc solving techniques. We have found out numerically that in this problem dissipation leads to a decrease in resonance frequency compared to non-visquous acoustics. The boundary layer is large compared to the domain size. The vibration amplitudes of the plate are very sensitive to pore content and to water-filled pore geometry. We have deduced from these results that the μ-cMUT devices we envision may be relevant to study hydration and to monitor degradations in cementitious materials. Feasibility of a high-frequency, nanotubes-based μ-cMUT device operating in water or air has also be evaluated : using first a dielectrophoretic deposition technique, we have made thin, dense membranes of well-aligned nanotubes. One of our deposition reaches mono-layer thickness, which is remarkable for dielectrophoretic depositions. We have suspended the nanotubes, thus obtaining long and rigid membranes. They are very thin and have a high form factor compared to state-of-the-art cMUT devices. Finally, we have used laser vibrometry to observe membrane vibrations. Membrane vibration amplitudes reach 5 nm at low frequency. As far as we know, it is the first time vibrations of carbon nanotubes have been successfully observed with laser vibrometry. These results prove that we have overcome one of the most significant technological bottle-neck of the whole feasibility study. Moreover, they indicate short-term feasibility of air microdetectors that could be valuably employed to monitor gaseous microporosity in cementitious materials. By associating a numerical study on relevance and a technological study on feasibility, this work contributes significantly to the development of a new durability monitoring method for cementitious materials. Central to this method is the use of a large number of embedded microsensors integrating nanotechnologies

Le béton projeté est une méthode de mise en place consistant en la projection pneumatique de béton sur une surface à grande vitesse. Dans le cas de la méthode par voie sèche, le mélange granulats-ciment est introduit sec en machine, l'eau est ajoutée à la fin du transfert. Cette technique, très employée, est néanmoins génératrice de pertes importantes par rebond, pouvant s'élever jusqu'à 40% de la masse projetée. L'enjeu de la réduction des pertes est à la fois économique et environnemental. Les facteurs influents sur le rebond sont liés aux techniques de projection et à la formulation. Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif l'optimisation de la formulation du béton afin de réduire les pertes par rebond, mais également d'améliorer la durabilité. L'étude porte en particulier sur l'influence sur le rebond : du squelette granulaire, de la teneur en eau et de l'emploi d'additifs et/ou d'additions de substitution. Une approche modélisation du phénomène de rebond est également abordée. / Sprayed concrete is a concrete pneumatically projected onto a surface at high velocity. Dry-mix shotcrete is a process in which dry constituents are introduced into the machine and conveyed through a hose to the nozzle, where the water is added. This process is used in various civil engineering or construction projects; unfortunately, it can lead to high losses of concrete due to rebound (up to 40% of the total mass of material). Such losses induce overconsumption of material, which is damaging for the cost of the work and for the environment. Rebound depends on technicals parameters and mix design. The present work focuses on rebound reduction and also on durability enhancement by modification of the mix design. The influence of aggregate size distribution, water content and supplementary cimentitious material is studied. An analytical approach of rebound phenomenon is also implemented.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’approfondir le développement d’une plateforme de modélisation, qui décrit le transport multi-espèces et multi-phasiques à travers les matériaux cimentaires. Les structures en béton armé peuvent se dégrader en raison de la corrosion des armatures en acier, induite par les chlorures et/ou la carbonatation. La plateforme de modélisation traite principalement de la période d’initiation de cette corrosion par la prédiction du transport des agents délétères à travers le béton d’enrobage. Ces phénomènes sont dépendants des propriétés relatives à l’humidité du matériau et requièrent l’étude des mouvements de l’eau liquide et de la phase gazeuse dans le matériau. La première partie de cette thèse se concentre sur la pénétration des chlorures à travers des bétons saturés. La pénétration des chlorures se limite à un processus couplé de diffusion et de fixation des ions sur la matrice cimentaire. Dans ce cadre, de nombreux modèles ont été développés et de nombreuses données expérimentales sont accessibles. Un benchmark de ces modèles est réalisé, avec pour objectif d’identifier les plus robustes et les plus fiables. Cette étude contribue également à choisir les isothermes de fixation des chlorures les plus pertinentes. Une analyse fiabiliste des modèles sélectionnés précédemment est menée. Un cadre de calcul de la durée de vie fiabiliste du béton armé immergée dans une solution saline est proposé. Une analyse de sensibilité est également réalisée afin de déterminer les données d’entrée du modèle les plus influentes. Les résultats mettent en avant le rôle crucial joué par l’enrobage, la teneur critique en chlorures et le coefficient effectif des chlorures. L’importance de la non-linéarité des isothermes est également soulignée, alors que cette propriété est encore mal maîtrisée. De nombreux modèles de prédiction des transferts d’humidité ont été développés. La compréhension des phénomènes physiques en jeu reste insuffisante pour les matériaux cimentaires. Une analyse de sensibilité fiabiliste du modèle multi-phasiques et de l’équation de Richards est réalisée, en considérant un essai de séchage. Les résultats soulignent l’importance de l’isotherme de désorption de vapeur d’eau et de la perméabilité à l’eau liquide, qui s’écrit comme une fonction de la saturation. Par la suite, les travaux se sont focalisés sur la détermination de cette perméabilité. Celle-ci a été réalisée par analyse inverse des profils de perte de masse lors d’un séchage et des profils de saturation durant une imbibition. Les valeurs déterminées sont comparées aux mesures de perméabilité aux gaz, aux mesures directes et indirectes (notamment Katz-Thompson) de perméabilité à l’eau liquide, reportées dans la littérature. Parmi les pistes d’évolution des modèles de carbonatation, une description plus complète du transport des espèces en phase gazeuse est à proposer. Le dernier chapitre traite de ce point, en considérant une diffusion ternaire du mélange gazeux avec toutefois une description simplifiée des réactions chimiques de carbonatation. Une étude théorique met en évidence les conséquences de la nouvelle description des transferts : les profils de pression de gaz (dépression) et de CO2 sont modifiés, ce qui peut impacter l’avancement de la carbonatation. Par la suite, une calibration a été réalisée afin de mettre en cohérence les prédictions numériques avec des expériences de carbonatation accélérée. Une analyse de sensibilité fiabiliste a été conduite en considérant un essai de carbonatation pour des fractions de CO2 extérieures allant de 0,04 % à 50 %, avec une humidité relative extérieure contrôlée. Les résultats ont montré l’importance de la porosité totale, de la teneur initiale en C-S-H (fraction de CO2 extérieure élevée) et des conditions hydriques extérieures (fraction de CO2 atmosphérique). Enfin, la carbonatation atmosphérique avec la prise en compte de cycles d’humidification-séchage a été simulée pour deux bétons / The purpose of this research is to go deeper in the development of a modelling platform, which describes multiphase and multi-species transport within cementitious materials. Reinforced concrete (RC) structures can be deteriorated as a result of chloride-induced and/or carbonation-induced corrosion of the steel rebars. The modelling platform deals with the initiation period of this corrosion by predicting the transport of the deleterious agents through the concrete cover. This phenomenon is dependent on the moisture properties of the material and requires the study of the movement of liquid-water and gas-phase transport in the material. The first step of this thesis focuses on chloride ingress within fully water-saturated concretes. The chloride ingress is limited to a coupled diffusion-binding process. Within this framework, several models have been developed and numerous experimental data are available. A benchmark of these models is performed in order to identify the most reliable engineering models. This also contributes to choose the most relevant chloride binding isotherms. A probabilistic analysis of selected models among the benchmark is carried out. A general framework is proposed to calculate a reliability service life for reinforced concrete structures in the case of immersion in seawater. A sensitivity analysis is also performed in order to define the most influencing input data. Results point out the crucial role of the concrete cover, the critical chloride content and, to a lesser extent, the effective chloride diffusion coefficient. The importance of the non linearity of isotherms is also highlighted whereas this property is still not well-known. Several moisture transport models have been developed. The understanding of the numerous physical phenomena involved is still insufficient for cementitious materials. A reliability sensitivity analysis of the multiphasic model and of the model based on Richards equation is performed, considering the drying of concretes. Results point out the importance of defining a relevant water vapour desorption isotherm and, to a lesser extent, the liquid-water permeability, as a function of saturation. Thereafter, this research focuses on the determination of this permeability. This is performed by inverse analysis considering two different experimental tests: the mass loss monitoring during a drying and the monitoring of saturation profiles during an imbibition. The determined values are compared to measurements of gas permeability and to measurements with direct and indirect methods (in particular, Katz-Thompson methods) of liquid water permeability, assessed in the literature. Among the outlooks of sophistication of predictive models dedicated to the carbonation, a more comprehensive description of the transport of species in the gaseous phase has to be proposed. The last chapter of the manuscript deals with this issue, by considering a ternary diffusion process of the gaseous mix along with a simplified description of the chemical carbonation reactions. A theoretical study is carried out in order to highlight the changes induced by the new description of transfers: the profiles of gas pressure (depression) and the profiles of CO2 pressure are modified, which can impact the progress of the carbonation front. Thereafter, a calibration of the model is performed in order to bring the numerical predictions into line with the experimental results of accelerated carbonation tests. A reliability sensitivity analysis is performed considering a carbonation test for external fractions of CO2 ranging from 0.04 % to 50 %, with constant external relative humidity. Results point out the significance of the bulk porosity, of the initial content of C-S-H (high external fractions of CO2) and the external moisture conditions (atmospheric external fractions of CO2). Finally, atmospheric carbonation involving wetting–drying cycles is simulated for two concretes

Ce travail de thèse concerne la modélisation du béton et des ouvrages en béton soumis à des sollicitations allant du quasi statique à la dynamique rapide, tout en prenant en compte de la présence d'eau libre dans les pores du béton. L'objectif est la mise au point d'un outil prévisionnel de simulation capable de décrire le comportement du béton et des structures en béton, en tenant compte des effets du taux de saturation. Le choix des Éléments Discrets pour cette modélisation est justifié par les phénomènes discontinus qui apparaissent dans le béton, tel que la fissuration, la fragmentation ou l'écaillage. Les Éléments Discrets permettent de reproduire de manière fiable et efficace le comportement discontinu local ainsi que la réponse globale de la structure.La première partie de ce travail concerne la simulation d'essais quasi-statiques sous sollicitations uniaxiales et triaxiales fortement confinées, avec la prise en compte du phénomène de compaction. Les effets de l'eau libre contenue dans les porosités sont pris en compte par l'introduction d'une dépendance entre le taux de saturation en eau et la déformation inélastique. La procédure d’identification des paramètres du modèle est présentée. Enfin, le modèle est validé en reproduisant le comportement quasi-statique du béton par différents essais. La deuxième partie de ce travail est consacrée au comportement dynamique du béton. L'objectif est d'étendre la validation du modèle en simulant des essais d'impacts. Les effets de vitesse sont pris en comptes et des simulations d'impact sur des dalles en béton de différentes épaisseurs sont effectuées. Les résultats obtenus sont en bonne concordance avec les résultats expérimentaux. / This thesis concerns the modeling of concrete and concrete structures subjected to stresses ranging from quasi-static to dynamic loading, taking into account the presence of free water in pores. The objective is the development of a predictive simulation tool capable of describing the behavior of concrete and concrete structures, taking into account the effects of saturation ratio. The choice of discrete elements for modeling is justified by the discontinuous phenomena that appear in the concrete, such as cracking, fragmentation, spalling and scabbing. Discrete Elements can reproduce reliably and efficiently the local discontinuous behavior and the overall response of the structure.The first part of this work concerns the simulation of quasi-static tests under uniaxial and highly confined triaxial loadings, taking into account the compaction phenomenon. The effects of the free water contained in the pores are taken into account by introducing a dependency between the water saturation level and the inelastic deformation. The identification process of the model parameters is presented. Finally, the model is validated by reproducing the quasi-static behavior of concrete in different tests.The second part of this work concerns the dynamic behavior of concrete. The aim is to extend the validation of the model by simulating impact tests on concrete slabs of different thickness. The dynamic effects are taken into account and impact simulations on concrete slabs of different thickness are made. The results are in good agreement with experimental results.