>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Fruit storage at cold temperatures is normally used to delay decay while maintaining the fruit’s quality. However, storage at low temperatures for a prolonged period causes some important metabolic functions within the fruit to stop functioning properly. This phenomenon is even more critical and complex in chilling-sensitive fruits. Fruits that originated in the tropical and sub-tropical regions are known to be chilling sensitive; their storage at low but non-freezing temperatures causes them to experience chilling injury (CI). Chilling injury causes irreversible damage to the external and internal attributes of the fruits. Pomegranate, which is investigated in this study, is consumed as fresh arils in many regions of the world. / 2023

La phénologie du débourrement est un caractère majeur d’adaptation des arbres à leurenvironnement en milieu tempéré. Notre objectif a été de caractériser les contraintes biotiques (oïdium) etabiotiques (températures hivernales et printanières / gels tardifs) s’exerçant sur le débourrement afind’expliquer les patrons de variation phénologique intra et inter populationnelle observés chez le chêne(Quercus petraea) le long d’un gradient altitudinal. Nous avons utilisé une approche combinantobservations in situ, expérimentation, et modélisation. Nous avons mis en évidence que l’évitement desgels tardifs printaniers est un caractère adaptatif majeur le long du gradient altitudinal. La tardiveté dudébourrement pourrait être due à des besoins plus importants en température de forcing. Par ailleurs, lechampignon n’est pas adapté localement à la phénologie de son hôte et les individus et les populationssont alors inégalement exposés à la maladie. En montant en altitude, les chênes sont de plus en plusexposés au champignon, mais les facteurs environnementaux sont défavorables à une plus forte infection.A basse altitude, l’oïdium et les gels tardifs favorisent des phénotypes phénologiques opposés(respectivement précoces vs. tardifs) ; la combinaison des deux contraintes pourrait donc contribuer aumaintien de la forte diversité phénologique observée. D’autre part, nous avons observé que l’infection parl’oïdium engendre une augmentation du polycyclisme chez les semis de chêne au cours de la saison decroissance, ce qui les rend moins résistants aux gels hivernaux. Nous montrons qu’il est important que lesmodèles phénologiques à visée prédictive intègrent la phase de chilling aboutissant à la levée dedormance. Le manque de chilling ne semble pas encore un facteur limitant, mais la tendance actuelle à undébourrement de plus en plus précoce sera probablement freinée voire inversée au milieu du siècle enbasse altitude, dans la marge sud de distribution de Q. petraea. / Budburst phenology is a major adaptive trait of trees to the environment in temperateclimate. Our aim was to characterize the biotic (powdery mildew) and abiotic (winter and springtemperatures / spring frost) constraints acting on budburst in view to explain the patterns of intra and interpopulations’ phenological variation observed in sessile oak (Quercus petraea) along an elevation gradient.We based our approach on in situ monitoring, experimentation and modeling. Our results highlight that theavoidance of late spring frosts is a major adaptive trait along the elevation gradient. The lateness inbudburst might be due to higher requirements in forcing temperatures. Otherwise, the fungus is not locallyadapted to its host phenology so oak individuals and populations are unequally exposed to the disease.With increasing elevation, oaks are more and more exposed to the fungus, but the environmental factorsare unfavorable to higher infection. At low elevation, powdery mildew and late spring frosts favor oppositephonological phenotypes (early-flushing vs. late-flushing trees, respectively); the combination of the twopressures may thus contribute to the maintenance of the observed high phenological diversity. We alsoshowed that powdery mildew infection induced an increased polycyclism during the growing season in oakseedlings, which made them less resistant to winter frosts. Predictive phenological models will have toinclude the chilling phase which conditions dormancy breaking. Although the lack of chilling is not yet alimiting factor, the current trend in increasingly advanced budburst will certainly be slowed or even reversedin the middle of the century at low elevation, in the southern margin of the distribution area of Q. petraea.

Orientador: Lireny Aparecida Guaraldo Gonçalves / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-19T08:12:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DiazGamboa_OscarWilfredo_D.pdf: 1876345 bytes, checksum: 56e9f8f4f7650f56a9f3dd8d60c68957 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: O presente projeto visou estabelecer condições ideais de obtenção de um produto que poderá ser disponibolizado para comercialização no Brasil tendo como foco a encapsulação para aplicação na área alimentícia. Tocoferóis são antioxidantes naturais que podem ser utilizados para enriquecimento de alimentos. Contudo há a necessidade de proteção desse agente ativo por métodos especiais como a microencapsulação. No presente estudo foram desenvolvidos sistemas compostos por micropartículas obtidas por ¿spray chilling" utilizando lipídios interesterificados sem isômeros trans com óleo de soja totalmente hidrogenado na relação de 70:30% m/m respectivamente, com ponto de fusão na faixa de 40-65 °C para formação das matrizes. Alfa-tocoferol foi utilizado como principio ativo a ser encapsulado. Para a obtenção das micropartículas matrizes lipídicas foram fundidas e mantidas em banho à temperatura de 65 °C . O a-tocoferol foi adicionado nas misturas lipídicas que em seguida foram homogeinizados em ultraturrax. As soluções foram pulverizadas em atomizador duplo fluido aquecido também a 65 °C e pressão de ar de 0,25 MPa, com a a tomização efetuada dentro de uma câmara resfriada a 10 °C. Foi realizado um p lanejamento DCCR (Delineamento Central Rotacional) com 2 variáveis independentes: a velocidade de homogeneização (3000 a 11000 rpm) e a concentração de tocoferol (5-25 g/100g). A quantificação do princípio ativo encapsulado foi realizada utilizando técnica isocrática de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE). Os tratamentos foram caracterizados em relação à eficiência de encapsulação, morfologia, tamanho médio, estabilidade e liberação do princípio ativo. Para o estudo da estabilidade os tratamentos foram submetidos à estocagem por 180 dias em três diferentes temperaturas (ambiente 25°C ±5 °C, em estufa 22 °C e freezer a -18°C). Medidas de difração de raios-X (0 , 60, 120, 180 dias) e medidas calorimétricas (tempo zero) foram efetuadas. Foi realizada a incorporação das micropartículas em um produto comercial (Iogurte), que foi avaliado sensorialmente. De forma geral, as partículas lipídicas obtidas neste trabalho apresentaram bons resultados quanto à eficiência de encapsulação e apresentando forma esférica, com paredes contínuas, porém rugosas. Os termogramas, obtidos por calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC), em tempo zero, não apresentaram diferenças entre os ensaios. Os difratogramas foram muito semelhantes entre os tratamentos e constatou-se a presença de 3 picos principais que parecem estar associados à forma polimórfica ß. As micropartículas de liberação apresentaram boa capacidade de controle da liberação do composto ativo, mostrando-se potenciais para o uso futuro na indústria de alimentos. Finalmente os resultados da análise sensorial de aceitação não foram estatisticamente significativos para os atributos avaliados / Abstract: This project aimed to establish optimal conditions for obtaining a product that will be commercially available in Brazil, focusing on encapsulation for use in the food industry. Tocopherols are natural antioxidants that can be used for food enrichment.However, there is the need for protection of active agent by special methods, such as microencapsulation. The present study developed systems composed of microparticles obtained by "spray chilling" using an interesterified fat with no trans isomers with fully hydrogenated soybean oil in the ratio of 70:30% w/w respectively, with a melting point in the range of 40-65°C for the formation of matrices to encapsulate a-tocopherol as active principle.To obtain small particles a lipid matrices were melted in a water bath at a temperature of 65°C. The a-tocopherol was added to the lipid mixtures and then homogenized in Ultra Turrax for 5 min.The solutions were sprayed in double-fluid atomizer also heated to 65°C and air pressure of 0.25 MPa, the atomization performed inside a chamber cooled to 10°C. Were conducted a CCR design (Central Compo site Rotational Design) with two independent variables: the speed of homogenization (3000 to 11000 rpm) and the concentration of tocopherol (5-25 g/100 g).The quantification of the active ingredient encapsulated was performed using isocratic HPLC technique. The treatments were characterized with respect to encapsulation efficiency, morphology, average size and stability of the microparticles and release of active ingredient.For the stability study treatments were subjected to storage for 180 days at three different temperatures (ambient 25°C ± 5°C , 22°C in an oven and freezer -18°C).Since x-rays diffraction measurements (0, 60, 120, 180 days) and calorimetric measurements (time zero) were made. Were performed the incorporation of the microparticles in a commercial product (yogurt), which was evaluated using the sensory evaluation.In general, the lipid particles studied in this work showed good results in terms of encapsulation efficiency showing spherical shape, with solid rough walls. The thermograms obtained by DSC at time zero did not differ between trials.The XRD patterns were very similar among treatments and found the presence of three major peaks that are associated with the polymorphic form ß. The microparticles showed good ability to control the release of the active principle, showing potential for future use in the food industry. Finally the results of an smooth sensory acceptance indicated that the tested samples did not differ statistically from the standard sample for evaluated attributes / Doutorado / Tecnologia de Alimentos / Doutor em Tecnologia de Alimentos

The poultry industry is seeking an advanced chilling system that can improve chilling efficiency, microbial safety, and water consumption without compromising meat quality. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of sub-zero saline chilling methods on chilling efficiency, breast fillet tenderness and microbial reduction of broiler carcasses. Following evisceration and rinsing, broiler carcasses were randomly assigned to one of three chilling solutions: 1) 0% salt or ice water control (0% NaCl/0.5oC), 2) 3% salt (3% NaCl/-1.8oC), and 3) 4% salt (4% NaCl/-2.41oC) solutions. Broiler carcasses in sub-zero saline solutions reached the target internal temperature of < 4.4 oC in a faster rate than the 0% salt control, reducing the chilling time by 11% and 39 % for 3% NaCl/-1.8oC and 4% NaCl/-2.41oC solutions, respectively. There was no significant difference in breast fillet pH, regardless of chilling treatment (P < 0.05). However, the breast fillets from sub-zero saline solutions showed higher R-value and longer sarcomere length than those of control fillets (P < 0.05). Breast fillets excised from carcasses in 4% NaCl/2.41oC were significantly tenderized more than the control fillets, with an intermediate tenderness observed for the fillets from 3% NaCl/-1.8oC (P< 0.05). Before chilling, broiler carcasses contained mesophilic aerobic bacteria (MAB), Escherichia coli(E. coli), and total coliforms for 3.81, 0.78, and 1.86 log colony forming unit (CFU)/g, respectively. After chilling, the populations of E. coliand total coliforms were significantly reduced on the carcasses in 3% NaCl/-1.8oC and 4% NaCl/-2.41oCcompared to the control fillets (P< 0.05). There was no significant difference for MAB populations, regardless of treatment. Based on these results, chilling of broiler carcasses in 4% NaCl/-2.4 °C solution seems to be the best choice to improve chilling efficiency, meat tenderness, and microbial reduction compared to the control (0% NaCl/0.5ºC) and 3% NaCl/-1.8oCsolutions.

Investment treaty arbitration has borrowed a number of elements from commercial arbitration, including confidentiality. The scope of confidentiality in investor-state arbitrations can make it hard for amicus curiaeto participate in the arbitral proceedings.    The rules regarding transparency in investor-state arbitration relates, among others, to access to information and documents, third-party participation and the publication of awards. Transparency in investor-state arbitrations is also related to changes in legislation that could affect the investor. Changes in legislation is a way of adapting to new circumstances as changes in government or an attempt to prevent health issues or fulfilling environmental goals in the interest of the public.   The possibility of amicus curiaeparticipation and submissions make it possible for the public to affect what information the tribunal have in cases where public interests are discussed. Tribunals have, when they have found that the public interest is not only general, decided to allow amicus curiaesubmissions even without the consent of the parties. They have allowed such submissions in cases where the amicus curiaecould enlighten the tribunal or provide additional information about the merits.     There is no binding case law in arbitration. Since the tribunal only have jurisdiction in the particular case, awards cannot be binding in other disputes. The lack of case law can lead to a lack of predictability for both investors and states. It has led to fewer changes in domestic regulation, the phenomenon is called the “chilling effect” and refers to states who make less changes (including changes in the interest of the public) in an attempt to avoid a violation of the FET standard.    Transparency, i.e. making the dispute public, including the party’s identities, documents and the award, can help providing predictability to investment-treaty arbitration. The outcome of the case is not binding as case law for future disputes but could provide both states and investors knowledge about how certain treaties and actions might be interpreted by a future tribunal.

A study of nucleic acid changes influenced by gibberellic acid and chilling treatments in peach seed was performed in an attempt to reach a better understanding of the mechanism involved in breaking seed dormancy. Gibberellic acid and the chilling treatment increased the RNA content. These two treatments which break dormancy also increased RNA, suggesting a similar mechanism involving RNA. Chilled seeds contained more RNA than did the gibberellic acid treated seeds. DNA content remained unchanged regardless of treatment. Dry seed had a greater ribonuclease activity than with soaked seeds. Enzyme changes did not correlate well with the RNA content in gibberellic treated seeds. Deoxyribonuclease activity was higher in dry seed than with soaked seeds. Enzyme activity change did not correlate well with the DNA content. The phosphorus content of the seed in regard to the gibberllic acid and chilling treatments was difficult to evaluate. There were no major relationships established. Phosphorus in the methanol fraction from the chilled seed increased some as the storage period increased.

Almonds are one of the first commercial nut trees to bloom in early spring and thus are susceptible to temperature patterns prior to and during bloom which affect bloom timing, bloom length, pollination and nut set. Data used in this project include yearly dates of 90% bloom from 1996-2006, bloom length in days and final crop yields in pounds per tree for Nonpareil and Mission varieties. Data were collected from the University of California Cooperative Extension reports on the 1993-2006 Regional Almond Variety Trials in Butte, San Joaquin and Kern Counties. Temperature pattern models in the form of Chill Hours (Chill Hour Model), Chill Units (Chill Unit Model), Chill Portions (Chill Portion Model) and Growing Degree Hours (GDH°) (Heat Model) prior to bloom were used to predict the date of 90% bloom for each variety, site and year. Temperature model results were compared to averaged actual dates of 90% bloom by site and variety used to predict bloom timing (Calendar Model). The relationship between bloom length in days and GDH° during bloom and the relationship between bloom length, GDH° during bloom and final crop yields were also evaluated. The average error in predicting the 90% bloom date for both Nonpareil and Mission was smaller using the Calendar Model compared to the four temperature pattern models. The Chill Portion model did not have significantly higher average error in predicting the date of 90% bloom than the Calendar model in Nonpareil. The Chill Unit and Chill Portion models had smaller errors in predicting 90% bloom date than the Chill Hour or GDH° model in Mission. GDH° during bloom was positively correlated with bloom length. GDH° during the first four days of Nonpareil bloom was significantly correlated with crop yields, with each additional GDH° during bloom correlated with a 0.4 lbs./tree increase in crop yield. Further research is needed on specific temperature thresholds and their relationship to physiological changes during almond bloom and pollination. The practice of monitoring chilling and heat accumulation will allow growers to anticipate bloom, prepare to optimize bee activity during bloom, and plan for possible crop yield variations due to adverse weather conditions during bloom in almonds.

In aquaculture, short term chilled storage has been used to transport brood stock fish embryos for genetic improvement programmes. It is therefore important to understand the effect of chilling on embryos at both developmental and molecular levels. In the present study, gene expression patterns in zebrafish embryos were studied before investigations were carried out on the effect of chilling on gene and protein expression in these embryos. The gene expression results obtained in different developmental stages using conventional PCR showed that, only sox genes were expressed throughout the tested developmental stages from 30% epiboly to 6 somites. Quantitative RT-PCR was then used to investigate sox gene expression patterns during chilling of 50% epiboly stage embryos at 0°C for up to 180 min and also after warming. Significant decreases in sox2 and sox3 expressions were observed when compared to those of controls following chilling whilst significant increases of expressions of the two genes were observed after warming in the embryos chilled for 30 and 60 min. Studies on the impact of cryoprotectant MeOH on sox genes and protein expression showed that 50% epiboly stage zebrafish embryos could tolerate chilling for up to 6 h with or without MeOH. It was observed that expression of all three sox genes were significantly decreased following chilling for 3 h at 0°C. However the degree of decrease was less pronounced in embryos chilled with different concentrations of MeOH. Significant increases in sox genes were observed in hatching stage embryos chilled with 1 M MeOH for 3h but subsequent sox2 and sox19a protein expression was not affected. The effect of long term chilling (18h) on sox gene and protein expression in 50% epiboly stage embryos was also investigated. Improved hatching rates (56% ± 5) were achieved when embryos were chilled with 1 M MeOH + 0.1 M sucrose. Results from gene expression studies showed a stable sox2 gene expression in 18 h chilled embryos in cryoprotectant mixture when compared to that of embryos chilled without cryoprotectant mixture. Similar patterns were observed when the expression of sox2 and sox3 protein was investigated. This is the first study carried out on the effect of chilling in early stage zebrafish embryos at the molecular level. The results obtained from the present study provided useful information on the molecular mechanisms of the effect of chilling on zebrafish embryos and will have important implications in designing chilled storage protocols for fish embryos.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Citrus fruit exported from South Africa to markets such as the USA and China undergo a mandatory 24 day exposure of -0.6°C during shipment to kill any insect larvae in the fruit, however, this protocol causes chilling injury (CI). The aim of this study was firstly to determine the influence of various preharvest factors on chilling sensitivity. In addition, Near-Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was tested as a potential management tool to identify variation in CI susceptibility of fruit and lastly the efficacy of thiabendazole (TBZ) applied in the packline to reduce CI was determined. Various factors influence the susceptibility of a navel orange fruit to CI including cultivar, micro-climate, harvest date, fruit size and rind colour. In this study it was found that ‘Washington’ was more susceptible to CI compared to ‘Navelina’ navel orange. Fruit from the coldest part of Citrusdal (Tharakama) had the highest incidence of CI, which concurred with literature. The incidence of CI was overall less when fruit were harvested in the middle of the commercial harvest window; however, the internal maturity at harvest does not appear to be related to the sensitivity of orange fruit to CI. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was tested as a potential tool to predict fruit quality parameters in relation to CI. Analysing the NIR data with principal components analysis (PCA), score plots were obtained that separate fruit in clusters from the inside and outside of the canopy positions as well as different sizes and rind colours (green vs. orange). However, analysing data with partial least square regression (PLS) using fruit quality parameters (firmness, rind colour and mass), the NIR spectra obtained with the integrated sphere did not provide a good prediction model for CI index. Thiabendazole (TBZ) is reported to reduce the incidence of CI of citrus fruit and this fungicide was applied in a semi-commercial packline in the wax as well as the drench. The results of the application of different fungicides from the TBZ chemical group indicated that the TBZ dip treatments had the highest efficacy in reducing both the incidence and severity of CI and in addition were more effective when applied in warm (40°C) than cold water (10°C). Applications at the commercial recommended rate (20mL.L-1 and half of the commercial recommended rate were both effective in reducing the incidence of CI. Wax application was effective in reducing the incidence of CI however, the application of TBZ in the wax reduced the incidence of CI even more. For the successful reduction of CI incidence in commercial shipments of citrus fruit the focus should not be on a single factor but rather a strategy that encompasses pre-harvest factors that would influence rind quality as well as specific postharvest technologies know to decrease the impact of CI. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sitrus vrugte ondergaan 'n verpligte 24 dae blootstelling aan -0,6°C om moontlike insek-larwes te dood gedurende die uitvoer na markte soos die VSA en China, maar hierdie protokol veroorsaak koueskade. Die doel van hierdie studie was eerstens om die invloed van verskillende voor-oes faktore op koueskade-sensitiwiteit van nawel lemoene te bepaal. Daarbenewens is naby-infrarooi (NIR) spektroskopie as 'n potensiële tegniek getoets om variasie in koueskade-sensitiwiteit van nawel lemoene te identifiseer, en laastens is die effektiwiteit van thiabendazole (TBZ) toediening in die verpakkings lyn, om koueskade te verminder, ondersoek. Verskillende faktore soos kultivar, mikroklimaat, oesdatum, vruggrootte en skilkleur beïnvloed die koueskade-sensitiwiteit van sitrus. Hierdie studie het bevind dat die ‘Washington’ meer sensitief is vir koueskade as die ‘Navelina’ nawels. Vrugte afkomstig uit die koudste deel van Citrusdal (Tharakama) het die hoogste voorkoms van koueskade. In die algemeen was vrugte ge-oes in die middel van die kommersiële-venster die minste koueskade-sensitief, maar interne rypheid hou nie verband met koueskadesensitiwiteit nie. Naby-Infrarooi (NIR) spektroskopie is getoets as 'n potensiële instrument om vrugkwaliteit parameters te voorspel met betrekking tot koueskade. Deur ontleding van die NIR data met behulp van ‘Principal Components Analysis’ kon vrugte groepeer word volgens posisie (binne vs. buite blaredak), groottes en skilkleur. Deur ‘Partial Least Square Regression’ verdere data ontleding en met inagneming van vrugkwaliteit parameters (fermheid, skil kleur en massa), kon die NIR spektra wat verkry was egter nie 'n goeie voorspelling model vir koueskade verskaf nie. TBZ verminder die voorkoms van koueskade van sitrusvrugte na dit toegedien was in 'n semi-kommersiële verpakkingslyn in die waks, ‘drench’ of baddens. Die toediening van verskillende swamdoders van die TBZ chemiese groep in baddens, het aangedui dat die TBZ doop behandeling effektief was om die voorkoms van koueskade te verminder. Daarbenewens was TBZ meer effektief in verlaging van koueskade as dit toegedien word in warm (40°C) as koue (10°C) water, asook teen die volle (20mL.L-1) en die helfte van die aanbevole kommersiële dosis. Wakstoediening was effektief in die vermindering van die voorkoms van koueskade en byvoeging van TBZ in die waks het die effektiwiteit verhoog. Die suksesvolle vermindering van koueskade tydens kommersiële verskeping van sitrusvrugte moet egter nie fokus op 'n enkele faktor nie, maar op 'n strategie wat bestaan uit voor-oes faktore wat die vrugskil kwaliteit beïnvloed, sowel as spesifieke na-oes tegnologieë en hanteringsprotokolle wat bekend is vir die vermindering van koueskade. / Citrus Research International

Chilling events are infrequent but important disturbances in subtropical Florida. When temperatures drop to near freezing, significant mortality often accrues in mangrove forests. Chilling events play a role in maintaining structural diversity in mangrove forests, and in limiting mangrove poleward distribution. I examined the spatio-temporal distribution of chilling events in mangrove forests of southern Biscayne Bay by using Landsat TM5 images since 1989. Damage was usually confined to dwarf mangrove forest, especially when chilling temperatures were moderate and short in duration. However, damage from extended and severe freezes such as in January 2010 impacted larger trees as well. Recovery is gradual, often extending over multiple years, depending on disturbance severity. Plant communities respond to repeated chilling with increase in the dominance of black mangrove. In the absence of chilling events, patch level dynamics might lead to prevalence of a more homogenous tall red mangrove canopy in these wetlands. Such a trajectory may result with increasing temperatures expected under current global climate change scenarios