<p>For marine sciences sometimes there is a need to perform underwater photography. Optical properties of light cause severe quality problems for underwater photography. Light of different energies is absorbed at highly different rates under water causing significant bluishness of the images. If the colour dependent attenuation under water can be properly estimated it should be possible to use computerised image processing to colour correct digital images using Beer’s Law.</p><p>In this thesis we have developed such estimation and correction methods that have become progressively more complicated and more accurate giving successively better correction results. A process of estimation of downwelling attenuation coefficients from multi or hyper spectral data is a basis for automatic colour restoration of underwater taken images. The results indicate that for each diving site the unique and precise coefficients can be obtained.</p><p>All standard digital cameras have built in white balancing and colour enhancement functions designed to make the images as aesthetically pleasing as possible. These functions can in most cameras not be switched off and the algorithms used are proprietary and undocumented. However, these enhancement functions can be estimated. Applying their reverse creates un-enhanced images and we show that our algorithms for underwater colour correction works significantly better when applied to such images.</p><p>Finally, we have developed a method that uses point spectra from the spectrometer together with RGB colour images from a camera to generate pseudo-hyper-spectral images. Each of these can then be colour corrected. Finally, the images can be weighted together in the proportions needed to create new correct RGB images. This method is somewhat computationally demanding but gives very encouraging results.</p><p>The algorithms and applications presented in this thesis show that automatic colour correction of underwater images can increase the credibility of data taken underwater for marine scientific purposes.</p>

Glass is a common material in each person’s life, e.g. drinking vessels, windows, displays, insulation and optical fibres. By modifying the glass surface it is possible to change the performance of the entire glass object, generally known as Surface Engineering. Ion exchange is a convenient technique to modify the glass surface composition and its properties, e.g. optical, mechanical, electrical and chemical properties, without ruining the surface finish of the glass.   This thesis reports the findings of two different research tasks; characterisation of the single-side ion exchange process and the novel properties induced. The characterisation of the ion exchange process was mainly performed by utilising a novel analytical equipment: the Surface Ablation Cell (SAC), allowing continuous removal of the flat glass surface by controlled isotropic dissolution. SAC-AAS has provided concentration vs. depth profiles of float glass ion exchanged with K+, Cu+, Rb+ and Cs+. In addition, SEM-EDX has provided concentration vs. depth profiles of Ag+ ion exchanged samples and validation of a copper concentration vs. depth profile. From the concentration vs. depth profiles, the effective diffusion coefficients and activation energies of the ion exchange processes have been calculated. Depending on the treatment time and treatment temperature, penetration depths in the range of 5-10 μm (Rb+, Cs+), 20-30 μm (K+, Cu+) and 80-100 μm (Ag+) can be readily obtained. The effective diffusion coefficients followed the order Ag+&gt;K+&gt;Cu+&gt;Rb+&gt;Cs+. This is in accordance with the ionic radii for the alkali ions (K+&lt;Rb+&lt;Cs+) but reverse for the noble metal ions (Cu+&lt;Ag+).   The glass properties modified by single-side ion exchange have mainly been characterised by UV-VIS spectroscopy and flexural strength measurements. Cu+ and Ag+ ion exchange give rise to surface colouration, Cu+ copper-ruby and Ag+ yellow/amber. The surface-ruby colouration was found to depend on the residual tin ions in the tin-side of the float glass. The flexural strength was studied using the coaxial double ring-test method which also was suitable for holed specimens. The flexural strength of K+ ion exchanged float glass samples was found to substantially increase compared to untreated.

The influence of particle shape of coating pigments on theirpacking ability and on the flow properties of coating colourshas been investigated. The particle shapes considered werespherical, flaky and acicular (needle-shaped). In the case ofsuspensions containing monodisperse spherical polystyreneparticles, a concentration gradient appeared in the filter cakeforming during filtration under static conditions. Such agradient, monitoredby non-destructive magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI), is not accounted for in the traditionalfiltration theory used in coating technology. Good agreementwas found between a literature model describing filtrationthrough a compressible filter cake and the concentrationgradients measured by MRI. According to this model, the scaledconcentration gradient was the same at all times. For flaky (mainly kaolin) and acicular (aragonite)particles, a rapid method was evaluated to estimate a shapefactor of the pigment particle. Generalised mathematical modelsof oblate and prolate spheroids were applied to reduce thethree geometrical dimensions of the particle to two, the majoraxis and the minor axis. The shape factor, which is mass-based,was derived from a comparison between the results obtained bytwo different size-assessment instruments, viz. the Sedigraphand an instrument using light scattering. This yields a shapefactor distribution as a function of equivalent sphericalparticle size, but the results are uncertain for small particlediameters, below 0.2 µm. Good agreement was obtainedbetween the shape factor and a mass-based aspect ratio obtainedby image analysis, but the rapid method is generally moreaccurate for flaky than for acicular particles. Results obtained by capillary viscometry showed that therewas a relationship between the viscosity at high shear rates(&gt;105s-1) and the shape factor, but that it was notsufficient to use the median value of the shape factor toachieve proper information. A more complete evaluation requiresknowledge of the shape factor distribution, which is also givenin part by the method mentioned above. However, a large medianshape factor was related to a high high-shear viscosity.Non-Newtonian entrance pressure losses were sometimessignificant in capillary viscometry, indicating that it wasinappropriate to measure the shear viscosity with only onecapillary. Such effects were however relatively much morepronounced in slit die viscometry, especially in the case ofacicular particles, where the aspect ratio was a crucialparameter. The influence of the shape factor of kaolinparticles on the non-Newtonian entrance pressure losses over aslit die was surprisingly small. The high-shear viscosity ofcoating suspensions based on different pigments correlated withthe median pore size of the corresponding coating layer ratherthan with the porosity. <b>Keywords</b>: Aspect ratio, capillary viscometry, coatingcolour, filtration, particle packing, pigment, pore structure,rheology, shape factor, slit die viscometry, spheroid.

For marine sciences sometimes there is a need to perform underwater photography. Optical properties of light cause severe quality problems for underwater photography. Light of different energies is absorbed at highly different rates under water causing significant bluishness of the images. If the colour dependent attenuation under water can be properly estimated it should be possible to use computerised image processing to colour correct digital images using Beer’s Law. In this thesis we have developed such estimation and correction methods that have become progressively more complicated and more accurate giving successively better correction results. A process of estimation of downwelling attenuation coefficients from multi or hyper spectral data is a basis for automatic colour restoration of underwater taken images. The results indicate that for each diving site the unique and precise coefficients can be obtained. All standard digital cameras have built in white balancing and colour enhancement functions designed to make the images as aesthetically pleasing as possible. These functions can in most cameras not be switched off and the algorithms used are proprietary and undocumented. However, these enhancement functions can be estimated. Applying their reverse creates un-enhanced images and we show that our algorithms for underwater colour correction works significantly better when applied to such images. Finally, we have developed a method that uses point spectra from the spectrometer together with RGB colour images from a camera to generate pseudo-hyper-spectral images. Each of these can then be colour corrected. Finally, the images can be weighted together in the proportions needed to create new correct RGB images. This method is somewhat computationally demanding but gives very encouraging results. The algorithms and applications presented in this thesis show that automatic colour correction of underwater images can increase the credibility of data taken underwater for marine scientific purposes.

Tennis elbow (TE) is a relatively common painful condition affecting the upper extremity. The aetiology is not known, but TE is most often seen in middle aged individuals using repetitive and forceful gripping at work or recreational activities, and is referred to overuse injuries. The pathogenesis is not known, but there are so-called degenerative changes in the wrist- and finger-extensor muscle origin (common extensor origin - CEO). The pain mechanisms involved have not been scientifically clarified. The studies in the present thesis aimed to 1) evaluate the structure and blood flow using ultrasound (US) and colour Doppler (CD) examinations of the CEO in patients with TE, and in pain-free elbows, 2) evaluate the clinical effects of US- and CD-guided intratendinous injection treatment with the sclerosing substance polidocanol, 3) evaluate the long term (2 years) effects of injection treatment on the tendon structure and blood flow, and 4) investigate if there is a local production of sympathetic and parasympathetic signal substances in non-neural cells in the CEO. Structural tendon changes and high blood flow was found in the CEO in patients with TE, but not in pain-free controls. Remaining structural changes and additional bone spur formation at the lateral epicondyle, but not high blood flow, were seen 2 years after successful injection treatment. In a randomised double-blind study, US- and CD-guided intratendinous injection treatment with sclerosing polidocanol or the local anaesthetic lidocaine combined with epinephrine, targeting the region with high blood flow, was found to reduce pain and increase grip strength in patients with TE. There were no differences in the outcome between the two treatment groups. A local production of catecholamines, but not acetylcholine, was found in fibroblasts in the CEO, in patients with TE. This thesis presents results showing US and CD examinations to be useful methods to diagnose TE, and to evaluate structure and blood flow in the CEO after treatment. US- and CD-guided injection treatment targeting high blood flow in the region with structural changes can reduce pain symptoms in patients with TE. The localised high blood flow, and local production of catecholamines in the tendon cells in the CEO, might be involved in the pain mechanisms.

En aquest treball es presenten dues mesures, una de la constant d'acoblament forta i l'altra d'aquesta mateixa constant conjuntament amb els anomenats factors de color. Les dades foren recollides pel detector ALEPH durant els anys 1994-95 a energies al voltant dels 91.2 GeV.Per a les dues mesures s´usaren obervables de quatre jets. La mesura de la constant d´acoblament forta a partir de la taxa de sucesos a quatre jets fou la primera realitzada a partir d´un observable de quatre jet i en resultà una de les mesures més precises fins avui.La mesura conjunta de la constant d´acoblament i els factors de color representa un prova rigorosa de la teoria de les interaccions fortes, la cromodinàmica quántica. Els resultats, amb incerteses molt competitives, estan en acord absolut amb els valors esperats per la teoria i també amb els resultats d'altres col·laboracions. / In this work two measurements are presented. One is the measurement of the strong coupling constant alone, and the other the combined measurement of the strong coupling constant and the, so called, colour factors. Data were collected by the ALEPH detector during years 1994-95 at energies around 91.2 GeV.Both measurements made use of four-jet observables. The measurement of the strong coupling constant from the four-jet rate was the first ever made from a four-jet observable, and represents one of the most precise measurements at present.The combined measurement of the strong coupling constant and the colour factors is a stringent test of the theory, quantum chromodynamics. The results, with very competitive uncertainties, are in exact agreement both with the values expected by the theory and the results from other collaborations.

El principal objectiu d'aquest treball de tesi és tractar el problema de la representació de la textura en color des del punt de vista de la visió per computador. L'extensió dels mètodes classics de processament de textura per imatges en nivells de grisos als canals d'una imatge color no assegura resultats semblants als de la percepció humana en aquesta tasca. Els mecanismes d'inducció cromàtica del sistema visual humà, estudiats en psicofísica, són fonamentals en la dependència que crea l'entorn en la percepció del color. La inducció cromàtica inclou dos efectes complementaris: l'assimilació i el contrast cromàtic. Mentre el primer ja ha estat mesurat des de la psicofísica i extés a la visió per computador, molts aspectes del segon encara queden per fer. La contribució principal d'aquesta tesi és la definició d'un operador computacional que simula el fenòmen del contrast cromàtic i que té un comportament coherent amb el del sistema visual humà en diferents problemes de la percepcció de la textura en color, ja que permet enfatitzar les diferències de color en distribucions que són quasibé unimodals i així millorar la segmentació de les regions de color. El problema que encara queda obert és la realització de mesures psicofísiques pels paràmetres de l'operador, tal com es va fer amb l's-cielab per al procés d'assimilació.La definició de representacions computacionals de textura i color perceptuals és un objectiu de gran importància en els problemes d'inspecció automàtica de superfícies en els que els dispositius de la colorimetria clàssica no permeten donar bones mesures d'aparença de color. La segona contribució de la tesi defineix una representació computacional basada en mesures globals de color incloent-hi l'assimilació de color i mesures locals de les propietats de les regions segmentades considerant el contrast cromàtic. Aquesta representació és aplicada a la classificació de gres porcelànic.Tenint en compte que s'han de realitzar mesures molt acurades de petites diferències, s'ha dedicat una part d'aquest treball a l'adquisició d'imatges en color, i en concret a aconseguir bones propietats de constància de color. En aquest sentit, la darrera contribució de la tesi és la definició d'un algorisme de contància de color en línea per a una càmera lineal d'alta precisió de color. Aquest mètode s'ha basat en el model lineal diagonal de constància de color prèviament garantit amb una transformació que canvia les propietats de la sensibilitat de la càmera. / The main goal of this thesis is to deal with the colour texture representation problem from a computer vision point of view. It is easy to demonstrate that the extension of classical grey level methods for texture processing to the three channels of the corresponding colour texture does not succeed in having a human-like behaviour on this visual task. Chromatic induction mechanisms of the human visual system, which have been widely studied in psychophysics, play an important role on the dependency of the colour perception from its surround. Chromatic induction includes two complementary effects: chromatic assimilation and chromatic contrast. While the former has been psychophysically measured and lately extended to computer vision, some aspects on the last one still remain to be measured. The main contribution of this thesis is a computational operator that simulates the contrast induction phenomena that has demonstrated a coherent behaviour on different texture colour perception problems, since it allows to emphasise colour differences on almost-unimodal colour distributions and consequently improving the segmentation of colour regions. An open problem that will remain open from this work is the psychophysical measurement of the operator parameters, in the same sense as it was done with the s-cielab for the assimilation process.A perceptually consistent colour texture computational representation is a goal of extreme importance in automatic colour-textured surface inspection problems, where the classic colorimetric tools does not succeed in given good colour appearance measurements. In this scope, a second contribution is a colour-texture representation based on global colour features considering colour assimilation and local features based on properties of colour blobs considering colour contrast. This representation is applied to an automatic tile classification problem.Since an important accuracy is needed to measure such small differences, we have devoted a great part of this work to the colour acquisition issue, and to the problem of achieving good colour constancy properties on the acquired images. In this sense, a last contribution of this work has been to define an on-line colour constancy algorithm for a high colour precision scan line camera based on a diagonal linear colour constancy model previously guaranteed by linear transform changing the camera sensitivity properties.

Hoy en día, los sistemas de imagen basados en cámaras CCD son ampliamente utilizados en numerosos campos, en particular, en el campo de la imagen científica debido a su alta resolución, alta eficiencia cuántica, amplia respuesta espectral, aceptable razón señal-ruido, linealidad, fidelidad geométrica, rápida respuesta, tamaño reducido y durabilidad.A pesar de esto, si se quiere utilizar una cámara CCD como instrumento de medida, se debe tener en cuenta que las cámaras CCD no son detectores perfectos, si no que presentan diversas fuentes de ruido inherentes a su funcionamiento que alteran los niveles digitales correspondientes a cada píxel, distorsionan la imagen real adquirida de forma desconocida y reducen la precisión radiométrica, la calidad de la imagen y su resolución.Dos de las relativamente recientes aplicaciones de los sistemas de imagen basados en cámaras CCD son la medida del color, consistente, básicamente, en estimar los valores triestímulo XYZ asociados a una muestra de color a partir de los niveles digitales de respuesta del sistema, y la reconstrucción espectral, consistente en estimar el espectro de reflectancia de una muestra de color a partir de los niveles digitales correspondientes de la respuesta del sistema.No obstante, para llevar a cabo medidas de color o reconstrucciones espectrales mediante este tipo de dispositivos es necesario realizar una caracterización o calibración previa de estos sistemas de imagen, con el objetivo de determinar la transformación que define la correspondencia entre las repuestas digitales del sistema y, por un lado, un espacio de color independiente del dispositivo, como el XYZ o el CIELAB, ya que las respuestas digitales del sistema, incluso las señales de salida RGB de un sistema de imagen tricromático, no se corresponden con los valores triestímulo independientes del dispositivo basados en el observador colorimétrico estándar de la CIE, o bien, por otro lado, el espacio de reflectancias espectrales, respectivamente.Los métodos de caracterización colorimétrica se pueden dividir en dos categorías generales: los métodos basados en las sensibilidades espectrales del sistema, algunos de los cuales normalmente sólo se aplican a configuraciones colorimétricas, es decir, con tres canales de adquisición, debido a su creciente complejidad al incrementar el numero de canales de adquisición, y los métodos basados en una carta de colores. Los métodos basados en las sensibilidades espectrales del sistema requieren el conocimiento de dichas sensibilidades para cada canal de adquisición, las cuales deben haberse determinado previamente mediante la caracterización espectral del sistema.En cuanto a los métodos de reconstrucción espectral, su principal objetivo es reconstruir el espectro de reflectancia, transmitancia o radiancia de una muestra de color a partir de las correspondientes respuestas digitales del sistema de imagen. Estos métodos se aplican habitualmente a configuraciones multiespectrales ya que los modelos lineales de espectros de reflectancia utilizados requieren como mínimo cuatro canales de adquisición para ser capaces de estimar espectros de reflectancia reales.Para que un sistema de imagen basado en una cámara CCD pueda ser utilizado como un instrumento de medida con elevada resolución espacial, de forma que la totalidad del área de detección del sistema sea útil para medir, es necesario corregir la no-uniformidad espacial de la respuesta del sistema. Con este propósito se utilizan básicamente dos tipos de técnicas. En primer lugar, las técnicas basadas en la escena se fundamentan en aplicar un algoritmo a la imagen original con el objetivo de obtener una mejora considerable en la calidad de la imagen a expensas de la precisión radiométrica. En segundo lugar, las técnicas de corrección de campo uniforme o de la nouniformidad espacial se basan en la calibración del sistema mediante dos imágenes: una imagen oscura y una imagen de campo uniforme, que se combinan linealmente con la imagen original. Este segundo tipo de técnicas permiten llevar a cabo medidas radiométricas precisas utilizando una cámara CCD. En la literatura se pueden encontrar diversas variantes de estas técnicas de corrección de campo uniforme o de la no-uniformidad espacial. La más general de estas variantes permite llevar a cabo la corrección de la no-uniformidad espacial de la respuesta del sistema de forma independiente de la nouniformidad de la iluminación de la escena, lo que resulta particularmente útil en varias condiciones de medida como, por ejemplo, en el caso de imágenes de objetos radiantes.La utilización de un sistema de imagen basado en una cámara CCD para medidas de color o reconstrucciones espectrales con elevada resolución espacial requiere la aplicación del segundo tipo de técnicas de corrección de la no-uniformidad espacial. En este trabajo se presentan la metodología experimental desarrollada para corregir las fuentes de ruido inherentes a un sistema de imagen basado en una cámara CCD, y la optimización de un algoritmo de corrección de la no-uniformidad espacial para obtener la mejor corrección posible de la no-uniformidad espacial.El principal objetivo de este trabajo es desarrollar un sistema de imagen multispectral para la medida del color. En este trabajo se presentan el diseño y desarrollo de un prototipo de sistema multiespectral en el rango visible del espectro y su minuciosa caracterización y análisis. Con este propósito se utiliza un sistema de imagen basado en una cámara CCD, por lo que es necesario llevar a cabo, en primer lugar, la corrección del ruido de la respuesta del sistema, concretamente la corrección de la no-uniformidad espacial, y, en segundo lugar, la caracterización o calibración del sistema mencionada anteriormente, para poder obtener los valores triestímulo XYZ y/o los espectros de reflectancia, respectivamente, a partir de las respuestas digitales del sistema. En este trabajo se utilizan dos sistemas de imagen basados en una cámara CCD: uno basado en una cámara CCD 10-bits color, y uno basado en una cámara CCD 12-bits monocromática refrigerada. De este último sistema se consideran dos configuraciones: una configuración colorimétrica con 3 canales de adquisición, y una configuración multiespectral con 7 canales de adquisición. La caracterización espectral se lleva a cabo sólo para la configuración colorimétrica de ambos sistemas con el objetivo de aplicar el método de caracterización colorimétrica basado en las sensibilidades espectrales del sistema. Por otro lado, se aplican diversos métodos de medida del color y reconstrucción espectral a las dos configuraciones del sistema basado en una cámara CCD 12-bits monocromática refrigerada y se comparan utilizando todas las combinaciones posibles de las cartas GretagMacbeth ColorChecker Color Rendition (CCCR) y GretagMacbeth ColorChecker DC (CCDC) como conjuntos de entrenamiento y prueba del sistema, con el objetivo de determinar los métodos más adecuados para cada configuración, es decir, los métodos que permiten conseguir la mejor precisión tanto en la medida del color como en la reconstrucción espectral para cada configuración. Al mismo tiempo se compara también el comportamiento de ambas configuraciones en términos de precisión de la medida del color y de la reconstrucción espectral.El hecho de que las sensibilidades espectrales de la mayoría de las cámaras CCD color (3 canales de adquisición) no verifiquen la condición de Luther, es decir, no sean transformaciones lineales de las funciones de igualación del color de la CIE, limita seriamente las aplicaciones colorimétricas de los sistemas basados en cámaras CCD color, dando lugar a valores triestímulo estimados dependientes del iluminante. Esta propiedad de las sensibilidades espectrales motiva el uso de sistemas multiespectrales ya que la única forma de asegurar una igualación del color para todos los observadores y bajo cambios en la iluminación es consiguiendo la igualación espectral. El método más directo para obtener información espectral de las muestras medidas es incrementar el muestreo por encima de los tres canales de adquisición tradicionales mediante filtros de banda estrecha, lo que se conoce como un sistema de imagen multiespectral. Los campos de aplicación de los sistemas deimagen multiespectral se ha incrementado enormemente en los últimos años, fundamentalmente debido a la posibilidad que ofrecen de estimar con precisión el espectro de reflectancia en cada píxel y, a partir de éste, los valores triestímulo XYZ, evitando del metamerismo.El sistema de imagen multiespectral diseñado y desarrollado en este trabajo doctoral para la medida del color está compuesto por un cámara CCD 12-bits monocromática refrigerada, una rueda de filtros motorizada y controlada vía software con un conjunto de filtros interferenciales de banda estrecha y un objetivo de focal variable. En coherencia con los resultados obtenidos en trabajos previos [Vilaseca et al., 2006] en la región NIR del espectro y extrapolándolos al rango visible, se utiliza un conjunto de siete filtros interferenciales de banda estrecha cubriendo por completo el rango visible del espectro, con la misma FWHM y longitudes de onda de pico equidistantes. Cada filtro constituye un canal de adquisición del sistema multiespectral, que corresponde a la configuración multiespectral del sistema de imagen antes mencionado.El primer paso antes de poder utilizar un sistema de imagen basado en una cámara CCD como instrumento de medida con elevada resolución espacial es llevar a cabo la corrección de las diferentes fuentes de ruido inherentes a su funcionamiento, y muy concretamente la corrección de la nouniformidad espacial de la respuesta del sensor. Con esta objetivo, en este trabajo se ha desarrollado una metodología experimental para la corrección de dichas fuentes de ruido, y se ha llevado a cabo la optimización de un algoritmo de corrección de la no-uniformidad espacial.A lo largo de este trabajo doctoral se han realizado también diversos análisis con el objetivo de mejorar la precisión de la medida del color y de la reconstrucción espectral utilizando sistemas de imagen basados en cámaras CCD.En primer lugar, considerando los conceptos básicos aplicados en imagen de alto rango dinámico (HDRI) para obtener una representación del contenido visual de una escena real independiente del dispositivo, se propone un balance de adaptación luminosa para incrementar el rango dinámico del sistema mediante la captura de imágenes con diferentes tiempos de exposición obteniendo así niveles digitales útiles para todos los píxeles. La aplicación de este balance de adaptación luminosa permite determinar el color en todos los píxeles de la imagen, incrementando así el rango dinámico del sistema [Pujol et al., 2006].En segundo lugar, se analiza la influencia del número de muestras del conjunto de entrenamiento en la precisión de la medida del color y la reconstrucción espectral con el objetivo de determinar si existe alguna relación entre la precisión y el tamaño del conjunto de entrenamiento. La precisión del sistema mejora incrementando el tamaño del conjunto de entrenamiento hasta alrededor de 110 muestras, y pasa a ser independientes del conjunto de entrenamiento utilizado para conjuntos de entrenamiento con un número de muestras igual o superior a 110.A continuación, se analizan la medida del color y la reconstrucción espectral llevadas a cabo utilizando las dos configuraciones del sistema, colorimétrica y multiespectral, en función de las gamas de colores medidas, es decir, conjuntos de muestras de color agrupadas en función de su tono, con el objetivo de determinar si estas configuraciones son especialmente sensibles a algunos tonos y/o a otras propiedades del color. En primer lugar se analizan las tendencias generales utilizando la carta CCDC como conjunto de entrenamiento y prueba y, en segundo lugar, se utilizan las 1269 muestras de color del Munsell Book of Color - Matte Collection, clasificadas en 10 tonos Munsell y cada uno de éstos en 4 sub-tonos, para analizar la influencia de la homogeneidad en tono del conjunto de entrenamiento.Se comprueba que la homogeneidad en tono del conjunto de entrenamiento permite mejorar de forma significativa la precisión del sistema tanto en la medida del color como en la reconstrucción espectral [de Lasarte et al., 2008 - 2]. Por otro lado, se utilizan tres combinaciones de conjuntos de entrenamiento y prueba de las muestras Munsell para variar el grado de homogeneidad en tono del conjunto de entrenamiento, obteniéndose los mejores resultados para los conjuntos de entrenamiento más homogéneos en tono.Los resultados obtenidos se analizan también en función de las características del color de las muestras medidas como son las coordenadas CIELAB, y las coordenadas Munsell de tono, 'value' y croma. No se observa ningún tipo de correlación entre la precisión del sistema y las coordenadas CIELAB, mientras que la precisión del sistema tiende a empeorar para muestras con valores de la coordenada Munsell Value V > 7 - 8.Se analiza también la influencia del iluminante mediante la comparación de los resultados obtenidos utilizando dos iluminantes: una lámpara incandescente y un simulador D65. Los mejores resultados se obtienen para la combinación configuración multiespectral del sistema y simulador D65 como iluminante.Seguidamente, la precisión de la medida del color y la reconstrucción espectral se analiza en función de los espectros de reflectancia de las muestras de color medidas para determinar si existe algún tipo de correlación entre ambos. Este estudio se lleva a cabo utilizando la configuración multiespectral del sistema y el iluminante D65, la carta CCDC y las muestras Munsell como conjuntos de entrenamiento y prueba. La precisión de la medida del color y la reconstrucción espectral se analizan en función de, por un lado, el área bajo la curva (AUC) de los espectros de reflectancia y, por otro lado, la suavidad de los espectros de reflectancia mediante su Transformada Discreta de Fourier (DFT), que se utiliza frecuentemente en análisis de espectros para determinar la suavidad de las curvas. Respecto al análisis del AUC, la precisión del sistema en la medida del color tiende a mejorar para muestras con AUC de sus espectros de reflectancia mayores, aunque no se puede establecer ninguna relación directa entre ambas. Esta tendencia no se observa en términos de la precisión de la reconstrucción espectral. Una mayor precisión en la reconstrucción espectral se asocia con frecuencia a espectros de reflectancia suaves, aunque tampoco se puede establecer ninguna correlación entre ambos. En cuanto al análisis de la DFT, la precisión en la medida del color parece ser independiente de la forma y/o la suavidad de los espectros de reflectancia, mientras que la mayor precisión en la reconstrucción espectral se asocia con frecuencia a un espectro de reflectancia suave, aunque no se puede establecer una correlación general entre ambas. Una vez completado el minucioso análisis del sistema multiespectral desarrollado y establecidas sus limitaciones en cuanto a precisión en la medida del color y la reconstrucción espectral, la siguiente etapa es determinar si algún otro número y/o combinación de filtros interferenciales disponibles comercialmente permitiría mejorar, al menos teóricamente, la precisión del sistema multiespectral. Con este propósito se lleva a cabo un estudio de simulación de un sistema multiespectral óptimo para la medida del color y la reconstrucción espectral. Este estudio se realiza considerando la respuesta espectral del la cámara CCD 12-bits refrigerada monocromática utilizada y una base de datos de filtros disponibles comercialmente seleccionados entre las bases de datos de Edmund Optics, OptoSigma y CVI. Se observa que la precisión del sistema se mejora al incrementar el número de filtros, aunque esta mejora está limitada y tiende a ser insignificante para un número de filtros superior a 8. Los filtros óptimos tienden a compensar la respuesta espectral de la cámara CCD sobre todo el rango visible pero teniendo en cuenta el inconveniente que suponen el desconocer las transmitancias reales de los filtros (las simulaciones dependen en gran medida de las transmitancias reales de los filtros, que no siempre se pueden simular fácilmente a partir de las especificaciones de los proveedores), la selección de un conjunto de filtros interferenciales con posiciones de pico equidistantes cubriendo todo el rango visible, iguales FWHM que permiten un ligero solapamiento entre ellos, y la mayor transmitancia posible, como se ha hecho en este trabajo, constituye una opción más que aceptable para obtener un sistema multiespectral útil. Finalmente, se comprueba la aplicabilidad del sistema multiespectral desarrollado utilizando, no sólo cartas de color estandarizadas, como son las CCDC, CCCR y las muestras Munsell, sino utilizando también un conjunto de 56 muestras textiles agrupadas en 28 parejas, que fueron especialmente fabricadas para comprobar la aplicabilidad de las fórmulas de diferencia de color, y el simulador D65 como iluminante. Se analizan diferentes combinaciones de conjuntos de entrenamiento y prueba. Los mejores resultados se obtienen, en promedio, utilizando conjuntos de entrenamiento homogéneos en tono y llevando a cabo una clasificación previa de las muestras textiles en tonos. Además, se comprueba la capacidad del sistema multiespectral desarrollado de detectar pequeñas diferencias, tanto en color como en el espectro de reflectancia, entre muestras reales, resultando así ser útil para aplicaciones que requieran discriminación, aunque se obtiene una escasa precisión en la determinación de las diferencias tanto de color como en las reflectancias espectrales entre los pares de muestras textiles considerados. / Nowadays, imaging systems based on CCD cameras are widely used in several fields and, particularly in the field of scientific image, due to its high resolution, high quantum efficiency, wide spectral response, acceptable signal-to-noise ratio, linearity, geometric fidelity, fast response, small size and durability.In spite of this, if a CCD camera is wanted to be used as a measuring instrument, one must bear in mind that CCD cameras are not perfect detectors, but there are various noise sources inherent to their performance that alter the digital levels corresponding to each pixel, distort the real image acquired in an unknown manner, and diminish the radiometric accuracy, the image quality and the resolution.Two of the relatively recent applications of the imaging systems based on CCD cameras are colour measurement and spectral reconstruction. Colour measurement basically consists of estimating the XYZ tristimulus values associated to a colour sample from the system's response digital levels, whereas spectral reconstruction consists of estimating the reflectance spectrum of a colour sample from its corresponding system's response digital levels.Nevertheless, performing colour measurements and/or spectral reconstructions using this kind of devices requires a previous characterization or calibration of the imaging system. On one hand, colour measurement requires to determine the transformation that defines the correspondence between system's digital responses and a colour space independent of the device, such as the XYZ or the CIELAB. This is due to the fact that system's digital responses, even the RGB output signals for a trichromatic imaging system, do not correspond with the device independent tristimulus values based on the CIE standard colorimetric observer. On the other hand, spectral reconstruction requires to determine the transformation that defines the correspondence between system's digital responses and the reflectance spectra space.Methods for colorimetric characterization can be divided in two general categories: methods based on spectral sensitivities, some of which are usually only applied to colorimetric configurations of imaging systems, i.e. with three acquisition channels, due to its growing complexity when the number of acquisition channels is increased, and methods based on a colour sample chart. Methods based on spectral sensitivities require the knowledge of the system's spectral sensitivities for each acquisition channel, which can be previously determined through the spectral characterization of the imaging system.Regarding the methods for spectral reconstruction, their main objective is to reconstruct the reflectance, transmittance or radiance spectra of a colour sample from the corresponding digital responses of the imaging system. These methods are usually applied to multispectral configurations since the linear models of reflectance spectrum used require at least four acquisition channels to be able to estimate real reflectance spectra.In order an imaging system based on a CCD camera can be used as a measuring instrument with high spatial resolution, so that the whole system's detection area is useful for measuring, it is mandatory to correct the spatial non-uniformity of the system's response. Basically two kinds of techniques are used with this purpose. Firstly, the scene-based techniques are based on applying an algorithm to the original or raw image in order to obtain a considerable improvement in image quality at the expense of radiometric accuracy. Secondly, the flat-field correction or spatial non-uniformity correction techniques are based on calibrating the detector by means of two images: a dark image and a uniform field or flat-field image, which are linearly combined with the original or raw image (image to be corrected). These second type techniques allow to use a CCD camera to perform accurate radiometric measurements. Several variants of these flat-field correction or spatial non-uniformity correction techniques can be found in literature. The most general of these variants allow the correction of the spatial non-uniformity of the system's response independently of the spatial non-uniformity of the scene illumination, which is quite useful in several measurement imaging conditions, such as in the case of images corresponding to self-radiating objects.Using an imaging system based on a CCD camera for high spatial resolution colour measurement and/or spectral reconstruction requires applying one of the second type techniques for the spatial non-uniformity correction. In this work, the experimental methodology developed to correct the inherent noise sources of an imaging system based on a CCD camera, and the optimization of a spatial non-uniformity correction algorithm to obtain the best spatial non-uniformity correction possible are presented.The main aim of this work is to develop a multispectral imaging system for colour measurement and spectral reconstruction. The design and development of a prototype of multispectral imaging system in the visible range of the spectrum and its thorough characterization and analysis is presented in this work. For this purpose, an imaging system based on a CCD camera is used. Therefore, in order to be able to perform accurate colour measurements and/or spectral reconstructions with high spatial resolution it will be necessary to carry out, firstly, the noise correction of the system's response, particularly the correction of the spatial non-uniformity, and secondly, the previously mentioned characterization or calibration of the imaging system to be able to obtain the XYZ tristimulus values and/or the reflectance spectra, respectively, from the system's digital responses.Two imaging systems based on a CCD camera are used in this work: an imaging system based on a colour 10-bits CCD camera, and an imaging system based on a monochrome 12-bits cooled CCD camera. Two configuration of this last imaging system are considered: a colorimetric configuration with 3 acquisition channels, and a multispectral configuration with 7 acquisition channels. The spectral characterization is carried out only for the colorimetric configuration of the previously mentioned two imaging systems, in order to be able to apply the method for colorimetric characterization based on the spectral sensitivities of the imaging system.Different methods for colour measurement and spectral reconstruction are applied to the two configurations of the imaging system based on a monochrome 12-bits cooled CCD camera, and compared using all possible combinations of the GretagMacbeth ColorChecker Color Rendition chart (CCCR) and the GretagMacbeth ColorChecker DC chart (CCDC) as training and test sets, in order to determine the most suitable methods for each configuration, i.e., the methods that allow to achieve the best accuracy of both colour measurement and spectral reconstruction for each configuration. At the same time, the performance of the two configurations is also compared in terms of both accuracy of colour measurement and accuracy of spectral reconstruction.The fact that the spectral sensitivities of most of the commercial colour CCD cameras (3 acquisition channels) do not verify the Luther condition, i.e., are not linear transformations of the CIE colour matching functions, seriously limitates the colorimetric applications of the imaging systems based on colour CCD cameras, giving rise to estimated tristimulus values dependent of the illuminant. This property of the spectral sensitivities motivates the use of multispectral imaging systems, since the only way to assure a colour matching for all observers and under changes in illumination is achieving a spectral matching. The most direct method to obtain spectral information of the measured samples is to increase the sampling over the three traditional acquisition channels by means of narrowband filters, which is known as a multispectral imaging system. The application fields of the multispectral imaging systems have increased enormously in last years, fundamentally due to the possibility that offer of estimating accurately the reflectance spectrum at each pixel and, from it, the XYZ tristimulus values avoiding metamerism.The multispectral imaging system designed and developed in this work comprises a monochrome 12-bits cooled CCD camera, a motorized filter wheel controlled via software with a set of narrowband filters, and an objective lens of variable focal length. A set of seven narrowband interference filters covering the whole visible range of the spectrum, with equal FWHM and equidistant central wavelengths, are used following the results obtained in previous works in the NIR region of the spectrum, and extrapolating them to the visible range. Each filter constitutes an acquisition channel of the multispectral imaging system, which corresponds to the multispectral configuration of the imaging system mentioned previously.The first stage before an imaging system based on a CCD camera can be used as a measuring instrument with high spatial resolution is to carry out the correction of the different noise sources inherent to the CCD's performance and, especially, the correction of the spatial non-uniformity of the sensor's response. With this aim, the experimental methodology to correct these noise sources has been developed and a linear algorithm for the spatial non-uniformity correction of the system's response has been optimized.Several analyses have also been carried out throughout this work in order to improve the accuracy of the colour measurement and the spectral reconstruction performed using imaging systems based on CCD cameras.Firstly, considering the basic concepts applied in high dynamic range imaging (HDRI) to obtain a device independent representation of the visual content of a real scene, a luminance adaptation model is proposed to increase the dynamic range of the imaging system by taking images at different exposure times in order to obtain useful digital levels for all the pixels. The application of this luminance adaptation model allows to measure colour at each pixel of the image, increasing the dynamic range of the imaging system by this way.Secondly, the influence of the number of samples of the training set on the accuracy of colour measurement and spectral reconstruction is analyzed in order to determine if there exists a relationship between the accuracy of colour measurement and spectral reconstruction, and the size of the training set. Accuracy of system's performance improves by increasing the size of the training set up to 110 colour samples approximately, and becomes independent of the training set used for training sets having a number of colour samples greater or equal to 110.Next, colour measurement and spectral reconstruction performed using both the colorimetric and the multispectral configurations of the imaging system are analyzed depending on the colour ranges measured, i.e. sets of colour samples grouped by their hue property, with the aim of determining if these configurations are especially sensitive to some hues and/or some other colour properties. Firstly, general tendencies are analyzed using the CCDC chart as training and test sets, and secondly, the 1269 colour patches of the Munsell Book of Color - Matte Collection, classified in 10 Munsell hues and each one of these hues in 4 sub-hues, are used to analyze the influence of homogeneity in hue of the training set on system's performance.Homogeneity in hue of the training set is proved to allow improving meaningfully accuracy of system's performance in terms of both colour measurement and spectral reconstruction. On the other hand, three combinations of training and test sets of Munsell's colour patches are used in order to vary the degree of homogeneity in hue of the training set. Best results are obtained using the most homogeneous in hue training sets.Furthermore, results obtained are also analyzed depending on the colour characteristics of samples measured such as the CIELAB coordinates, and the Munsell hue, value and chroma coordinates. No correlation is observed between accuracy of system's performance and the CIELAB coordinates, whereas accuracy of system's performance tends to get worse for samples having Munsell Values V > 7 - 8.The influence of the illuminant used is also analyzed by comparing results obtained using two illuminants: an incandescent lamp illuminant, which is the one used so far, and a D65 simulator illuminant.Then, accuracy of colour measurement and spectral reconstruction is analyzed depending on the reflectance spectra of the colour samples measured, in order to determine if there exists any kind of correlation between them. This study is performed using the best proved combination of system's configuration and illuminant, which is multispectral configuration and D65 simulator illuminant, and the CCDC chart and the Munsell's colour patches as training and test sets. Accuracy of colour measurement and spectral reconstruction is analyzed depending on, on one hand, the Area Under the Curve (AUC) of reflectance spectra and, on the other hand, on the smoothness of the reflectance spectra by means of their Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), which is usually used in spectrum analysis to determine the smoothness of curves. Considering the AUC analysis, accuracy of colour measurement tends to improve for the colour samples with higher AUCs of their reflectance spectra, whereas this tendency is not observed for the accuracy of spectral reconstruction. However, any direct relationship cannot be established either between the accuracy of colour measurement and the AUC of the reflectance spectra of colour samples. Considering the DFT analysis, accuracy of colour measurement seems to be independent of the shape and/or the smoothness of the reflectance spectra, whereas the best accuracy of spectral reconstruction is frequently associated to a smooth reflectance spectrum, although any general correlation cannot be established between them.Once thoroughly analyzed the multispectral imaging system developed, and established its limitations in terms of accuracy of colour measurement and spectral reconstruction, next stage is determining if any other number and/or combination of commercially available interference filters would allow to improve, at least theoretically, the accuracy of the multispectral imaging system in terms of colour measurement and spectral reconstruction. For this purpose, a simulation study of an optimum multispectral imaging system for colour measurement and spectral reconstruction is presented. This study is performed considering the spectral response of the monochrome 12-bits cooled CCD camera used and a database of commercially available interference filters selected among the databases of Edmund Optics, OptoSigma and CVI. Accuracy of system's performance is improved in terms of accuracy of both colour measurement and spectral reconstruction with an increasing number of interference filters. Nevertheless, this improvement is limited and tends to be insignificant for more than 8 filters. Optimum filters tend to make up for the spectral response of the CCD camera over the whole visible range but considering the drawback the unknown real spectral transmittances of filters supposes (simulations depend greatly on the real spectral transmittances of filters, which not always can be easily simulated from the specifications provided by suppliers), the selection of a set of interference filters having equidistant peak positions covering the whole visible range, equal FWHMs that allow a slight overlapping between them, and the higher transmittance possible, as it was done in this work, constitutes an acceptable option to obtain a worthy multispectral imaging system.Finally, the applicability of the multispectral imaging system developed is tested not only using standardized colour charts, such as the CCCR, CCDC, and the Munsell's colour patches used so far, but also using real samples, such as a set of 56 textile samples grouped in 28 pairs, which were made specifically to test the applicability of colour difference formulas, and the D65 simulator illuminant. Different combinations of training and test sets are analyzed. Best results are obtained, in average, using training sets homogeneous in hue and carrying out a previous hue classification of the textile samples used as test set. Moreover, the multispectral imaging system developed is proved to be able to detect slight differences both in colour and in reflectance spectra between real samples, making it useful for applications that require discrimination, although a quite low accuracy of system's performance is obtained in detecting both the colour differences and the spectral differences between pairs of textile samples.

Synaesthesia is a fascinating condition in which ordinary stimuli elicit extraordinary sensory experiences. For example, specific tastes may elicit unusual tactile sensations and standard black letters may elicit highly specific colour experiences. These unusual experiences have been shown to have substantial impact on cognition, emotion, perception, and covert attention. Two experiments are presented which show that synaesthesia also influences overt visual attention. In these experiments two grapheme-colour synaesthetes viewed coloured letters while their eye movements were tracked. Letters were presented in colours that were either congruent or incongruent with the synaesthetes' colours. Eye tracking analysis showed that synaesthetes exhibited a colour congruity bias – a propensity to fixate congruently coloured letters more often and for longer durations than incongruently coloured letters – in a naturalistic free viewing task. In a more structured visual search task, this congruity bias caused synaesthetes to rapidly fixate and identify congruently coloured target letters, but led to problems in identifying incongruently coloured target letters. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for perception in synaesthesia.

Medication errors are one of the most common causes of patient injuries in healthcare systems. Poor labelling has been identified as a contributing factor of medication errors, particularly for those involving injectable drugs. Colour coding and colour differentiation are two major techniques being used on labels to aid drug identification. However, neither approach has been scientifically proven to minimize the occurrence of or harm from medication errors. This thesis investigates potential effects of different approaches for using colour on standardized labels on the task of identifying a specific drug from a storage area via a controlled experiment involving human users. Three different ways of using colour were compared: labels where only black, white and grey are used; labels where a unique colour scheme adopted from an existing manufacturer’s label is applied to each drug; colour coded labels based on the product’s strength level within the product line. The results show that people might be vulnerable to confusion from drugs that have look-alike labels and also have look-alike, sound-alike drug names. In particular, when each drug label had a fairly unique colour scheme, participants were more prone to misperceive the look-alike, sound-alike drug name as the correct drug name than when no colour was used or when colour was used on the labels with no apparent one-to-one association between the label colour and the drug identity. This result could suggest a perceptual bias to perceive stimuli as the expected stimuli especially when the task involved is familiar and the stimuli look similar to the expected stimuli. Moreover, the results suggest a potential problem that may arise from standardizing existing labels if careful consideration is not given to the effects of reduced visual variations among the labels of different products on how the colours of the labels are perceived and used for drug identification. The thesis concludes with recommendations for improving the existing standard for labelling of injectable drug containers and for avoiding medication errors due to labelling and packaging in general.