This thesis examines Alexander�s conception of kingship, his relationship with royal traditions in the three great kingdoms of the Near East, and the concomitant transformation of the king�s court by which Alexander created a distinctive royal insignia and introduced new court personnel and protocol. Section I ("Alexander and Near Eastern Kingship") contains Chapters I, II, and III. Section II ("The Transformation") comprises Chapters IV to VI. In Chapter I, I examine the Macedonian background of Alexander�s court and his native conception of kingship. Chapter II is a study of the kingship of Egypt. Chapter III deals with the kingship of Babylon and Persia. I then turn to an analysis of Alexander�s policies towards the Persians and the concept of the "kingship of Asia," as this was understood by Alexander. This crucial concept is to be distinguished from the kingship of Persia, a position which Alexander supplanted and replaced with his personal kingship of Asia. In Section II, three chapters are devoted to an analysis of the transformation of Alexander�s court. Chapter IV covers the origin and significance of Alexander�s royal insignia. Chapter V examines the introduction of, and the role played by, Persians and easterners in the king�s court; and Chapter VI the significance of other Persian court offices.

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) established by the UN Security Council in the early 1993 and 1994 respectively in the wake of mass atrocities commented in the Balkans and in Rwanda are arguably the first truly international criminal tribunals (ICTs). While the Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals set up by the Allies to prosecute the Germans and Japanese responsible for atrocities committed during World War II provided some precedent, much of the ICTs’ substantive law had never been litigated. In addition, differences in the circumstances surrounding the two sets of prosecutions meant that the ICTs’ procedural system was effectively brand new. In this context, the role of the ICTs’ judges in progressively developing international criminal law and the international criminal justice system assumes great importance. Since the establishment of the ICTs, a permanent international criminal court and several ‘hybrid’ international courts have been created. Each of these has drawn heavily on the jurisprudence and procedural law, practices and norms of the ICTs. This further underscores the importance of understanding the development of international criminal law by ICT judges. / Studies of factors influencing the behaviour of judges have generally focused either on micro-level factors, primarily the policy position of judges, or macro-level factors, primarily the relationship between States and international courts. This thesis argues that the exploration of factors influencing judicial behaviour on both levels is important. This thesis uses a broad institutional perspective to identify the types of factors likely to be salient influences on judicial behaviour and the way in which those factors operate, in particular the way in which the ICTs as organisations operate to mediate exogenous influences. / The thesis uses a range of data sources, including interviews with judges and defence counsel to empirically explore two micro level and three macro level influences. The micro-level influences explored are judges’ national system and professional backgrounds. The macro-level influences explored are the reliance of the ICTs on States, the need for the ICTs to establish and maintain legitimacy and the broader expectations directed towards war crimes tribunals. / The thesis findings show that exploring both the micro and macro-levels provide important insights into judicial behaviour at the ICTs. The findings on the influence of the micro-level factors explored in the thesis reveal that both national system background and professional background do influence some aspects of judicial behaviour. The findings also suggest the importance of understanding the process of institutionalisation when exploring judicial behaviour and the organisational factors that facilitate or impede this. The findings on the influence of the macro-level factors explored in the thesis suggest that each of these factors do influence judicial behaviour at the ICTs in certain ways, but that the level to which the factors influence behaviour is context-contingent.

Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse s'inscrivent dans la cadre de la planification de trajectoires optimales en présence d'obstacles pour des robots mobiles de type voiture et pour des robots à pattes. Le modèle de robot de type voiture étudié est celui de Dubins. Il s'agit grossièrement d'une voiture se déplaçant en marche avant uniquement et dont le rayon de braquage est minoré par 1. Nous avons considéré le problème du calcul d'une enveloppe convexe de courbure bornée d'un ensemble S de points du plan, c'est-à-dire d'un ensemble contenant S et dont le bord est de courbure bornée et de périmètre minimal. Nous montrons que si le rayon du plus petit disque contenant S est supérieur à 1, une telle enveloppe est unique. Nous montrons que le calcul d'une enveloppe convexe de courbure bornée se ramène à un problème d'optimisation convexe ou à la résolution d'un ensemble de systèmes algébriques. Nous proposons également un algorithme exact polynomial pour le calcul de trajectoires optimales en longueur lorsque le robot se déplace en présence d'obstacles dont les bords sont de courbure bornée et constitués de segments de droite et d'arcs de cercle. De tels obstacles peuvent être obtenu comme enveloppes convexes de courbure bornée d'obstacles polygonaux. L'algorithme calcule un graphe et recherche un plus court chemin dans ce graphe. Le calcul de ce graphe est effectué grâce à des techniques de géométrie algorithmique et par la résolution de systèmes algébriques dont nous montrons, à l'aide de résultants, qu'ils ont un nombre fini de solutions. Nous avons également étudié le problème de la planification de trajectoires pour des robots à pattes dont le corps est ponctuel et dont toutes les pattes sont attachées au même point. Les pattes du robot ont une longueur bornée et ne sont autorisées à se poser que dans certaines régions polygonales du plan. Nous présentons un algorithme quasi optimal pour le calcul de l'ensemble des positions du corps du robot en équilibre stable. Par une transformation judicieuse, nous nous ramenons au calcul de l'espace libre d'un robot de la forme d'un demi disque se déplaçant en présence d'obstacles.

Cette étude a pour objectif principal de développer un réacteur structuré de type monolithe pour atteindre des performances élevées en oxydation partielle du méthane en gaz de synthèse. Les catalyseurs étudiés sont à base de Pt et Ni comme métaux noble et non noble, respectivement, supportés sur un oxyde mixte CeO2-ZrO2 et déposés sur les parois d'un monolithe en corundum. Le rôle de différents dopants introduits dans le support oxyde mixte du catalyseur vis à vis du stockage-déstockage d'oxygène a été élucidé et l'influence des conditions opératoires et des paramètres du procédé sur les performances d'un élément mono canal du monolithe a été précisée. Une étude mécanistique a révélé d'importants facteurs comme la nature et la dynamique des espèces de surface et de coeur et montré que l'interaction entre le Pt et l'oxyde mixte CeO2-ZrO2 déterminait l'activité du catalyseur. Des expériences cinétiques ont démontré que le Pt est requis pour les réactions de reformage mais que le support CeO2-ZrO2 dopé pouvait présenter une activité non négligeable pour l'activation oxydante du méthane. Une modélisation mathématique des données expérimentales a été réalisée avec un modèle prenant en compte essentiellement l'activité du Pt. Cette dernière a été trouvée très supérieure à celle du support. Cependant des expériences en réacteur TAP ont montré qu'une oxydation du catalyseur permettait une vitesse d'oxydation du méthane supérieure.

Within the framework of the traditional sociological question, how the legal system is related to the society, the aim of this study is to treat the legal system as a conflict resolver. More specifically, the following questions will be treated:1.Which categories of people and which categories of organizations are as parties using the court for settling conflicts and in what types of conflicts do they act in this way?2.Howdoes the legal utilization vary over time? May socio-economical, demographical, and legal conditions explain these variations?This study only deals with conflict resolution in courts of first instance, so called district courts.One aim has been to get a general view over to what extent Swedish courts are utilized as conflict resolvers, and how this utilization varies over time. The discussion is mainly based upon official statistics. To complete this discussion, an empirical study has been realized. This study is comparative. The conflict solving activities between 1940 and 1969 has been examined in the town courts of Umeå and Luleå. The data basis consists of official statistics and collected informations from cases finally dealt with in the two courts. A stratified random sample out of these cases has been made. As a result of theoretical and methodological considerations the sample consists of only certain types of disputes and crimes.As a general conclusion, one can state that disputes before the courts nowadays as earlier are concerning socially and economically strong persons. However one must notify that this study is just a case study with its limitations.Concerning criminal cases, expected results from the study are that the proportion of workers among the prosecuted is bigger than the proportion of prosecuted business leaders. Interesting however, is that the unskilled are well represented in the data material. This means a different picture compared to the distribution of plaintiffs in civil cases. The changes in character of the conflict constellations occured in the two towns at the same time as summary legal processes were introduced in criminal cases at the end of the 1940's. A bigger proportion of workers as prosecuted party is observed after that processual simplification. Pro-cessual simplifications of that kind seem to strengthen rather than to weaken the occupational bias among the prosecuted persons, at least in crime cases with an injured person involved.Concerning criminal cases, we have finally assumpted that during phases of social and economical stagnation both the number of prosecuted workers and the number of theft and drunkeness cases increases in the type of industrialized community that Luleå belongs to. In more socially and economically differentiated communities, like Umeå, the same type of development is more linked to phases of economical expansion. While increases in the pressure of temptation are widening the economical conditions for people, this may be the reasonable explanation to the variations in the conflict resolving activities in the courts between different local communities. Explanations, close to those used to explain criminal activity caused by poverty, may refer to local communities dominated by industry. / digitalisering@umu

Since the mid-1980s, U.S. and foreign parties have filed more than 100,000 lawsuits in U.S. federal courts asking for adjudication of disputes arising from transnational activity. These lawsuits raise a fundamental question of global governance: Who governs? Should the United States assert its authority to adjudicate a transnational dispute, or should it defer to the adjudicative authority of a foreign state that also has connections with the underlying activity? Should the United States assert its authority to prescribe the rules governing that activity, or should it defer to foreign prescriptive authority? U.S. district courts routinely face these questions in transnational litigation, and by answering them they help allocate governance authority among states. To shed light on the role of domestic courts in global governance, this dissertation asks: How often and under what circumstances do U.S. district courts defer to foreign authority to govern transnational activity rather than asserting domestic authority? Drawing on private international law scholarship and theories of international relations, judicial behavior, and bounded rationality, I develop a series of hypotheses about the legal and political factors that influence judicial allocation of governance authority. I then statistically test these hypotheses using original data on U.S. district court decisionmaking in two transnational litigation settings: the allocation of adjudicative authority under the forum non conveniens doctrine, and the allocation of prescriptive authority under various choice-of-law methods. Contrary to the conventional wisdom that U.S. judges are reluctant to defer to foreign authority, I find that they defer at a rate of approximately 50% in both settings. And notwithstanding claims that legal doctrine does not significantly affect judicial decisionmaking, I present evidence suggesting that the forum non conveniens doctrine and choice-of-law doctrine both influence judicial allocation of governance authority. There is evidence of both direct doctrinal effects, as contemplated by legalist theory, and indirect doctrinal effects, resulting from the use of judicial heuristics which allow judges to conserve scarce decisionmaking resources while making decisions that achieve acceptable levels of legal quality. Significant political factors include whether the foreign state is a liberal democracy, the domestic political environment, and U.S. parties' preferences. / Dissertation

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Bien que la juridiction inhérente des cours superIeures constitue une notion souvent utilisée par les tribunaux au Canada, plusieurs facettes importantes de cette notion demeurent inconnues et incomprises. Le présent mémoire s'attarde à retracer l'origine et les fondements des pouvoirs inhérents afin d'en expliquer la constitutionnalisation dans l'ordre constitutionnel canadien contemporain. Pour ce faire, nous avons retracé l'essence des pouvoirs inhérents au moyen d'une démarche historique afin d'énoncer une théorie constitutionnelle cohérente des pouvoirs inhérents qui permettra de juger du bien-fondé de leurs nombreuses manifestations contemporaines. L'enchâssement de la juridiction inhérente dans la Constitution canadienne repose sur le statut, la nature et les caractéristiques uniques des cours supérieures. Plus particulièrement, le principe constitutionnel de l'indépendance judiciaire constitue le fondement contemporain de la constitutionnalisation de la juridiction inhérente. Cette constatation permet alors d'avancer l'idée selon laquelle les pouvoirs inhérents nécessaires au maintien de l'indépendance judiciaire des cours supérieures doivent être élevés au rang de normes constitutionnelles supralégislatives. / The inherent jurisdiction of the superior courts is frequently used by the courts in Canada. However, many of its major aspects are still unknown or misunderstood. This paper tries to identify the origins and foundations of the inherent jurisdiction to explain its constitutionalization in contemporary Canadian constitution law. To achieve this purpose, we retrace the essence of the inherent powers by way of an historical approach. This allows us to construct a coherent constitutional theory of the inherent jurisdiction which will be useful to evaluate the legitimacy and appropriateness of its manifold modern uses. The constitutionalization of the inherent jurisdiction rests on the unique status, nature and characteristics of the superior courts in Canada. More specifically, the constitutional principle of judicial independence is the modern foundation of the constitutionalization of the inherent jurisdiction. This assertion allows us to advance the idea that the inherent powers needed to maintain the judicial independence of the superior courts must be elevated to the level of supralegislative norms. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maître en droit". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 10% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "Le mémoire apporte un point de vue fort éclairant sur un sujet difficile et peu exploré sur un mode systématique".

Due to the party-orientation and professional nature of the adversary mode of criminal procedure, the principles of a fair trial are best observed where the accused is represented by a lawyer. Given the advantages to be gained from legal representation, the principle of equal justice requires that all accused should have access to legal assistance and thus that legal aid should be provided for indigent accused. The South African legal aid scheme cannot yet provide assistance to all indigent accused because of the large number of these accused, the shortage of manpower and the lack of funds. There are, however, few legislative provisions to safeguard the rights of the vast majority of accused, arraigned in the lower courts, who remain undefended. The Supreme Court, in order to ensure that these accused are fairly tried, has imposed the following types of duties on judicial officers: (a) a duty to facilitate the accused's participation in the proceedings by advising him of his rights and duties and assisting him in their exercise; (b) a duty to control the prosecutor in the exercise of his powers; and (c) a duty to conduct an enquiry before arriving at administrative-type decisions. These duties are, however, inadequate to achieve the Court's, objective because, firstly, not all, rights are made accessible to the accused, and secondly, the duties are inadequate to ensure that the accused's guilt is reliably established. The failure of the legislature and the Supreme Court to incorporate the principle of equal justice into the legal process, has resulted in court proceedings that are characterized by unjust practices and outcomes. To ensure the more equitable prosecution of undefended accused it is suggested that an activist judicial officer should be responsible for the enforcement of all the principles of a fair trial (which would be concretized in clear legal rules) in an impartial manner, with his decisionmaking routinely supervised by the Supreme Court. / Thesis (LL.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1986.

There exists a lacuna in our legal system, the role of the judiciary in the lawmaking process is not well defined. 'Historically, the judiciary has always claimed that its duty was merely to interpret and apply the law and that it was not within its province to legislate.' Custom and practice on the other hand has revealed that. to some extent, this is not entirely true. Because through precedents and pronouncements of statutes unconstitutional and therefore, null and void, the former in that sense makes laws and is practically involved in the law-making process. • Judicial discretion is another means at the disposal of the judiciary by which the latter legislates." Therefore, the notion that the province of the judiciary is only confined to the interpretation and application of the law is overwhelmingly misleading. The role of the judiciary in the law making process has to be clearly defined and not just to be inferred so that there is left no middle ground or grey area between its involvement and non-involvement. Once this is done, the problem of uncertainty and inconsistency in so far as the judicial process is concerned will be remedied. Since it is indeed the judiciary that decides the cases before them, from these cases it is respectfully submitted that the interpretative process they adopt in arriving at their decision itself amounts to law-making. It is trite law that when courts interpret the law. they also make the law in that process. This reasoning has long been accepted in our legal order and in foreign jurisdictions. The former President of the United States of America, Roosevelt. precisely pointed out in his message to the Congress of the United States on the 8th December 1908, thus: The Chief lawmakers in our country may be. and often are, the judges. because they are the final seat of authority. Every time they interpret contract. property, vested rights, due process of the law. liberty, they necessarily enact into law parts of a system of social philosophy; and as such interpretation is fundamental. they give direction to all lawmaking. The decisions of the courts on economic and social questions depend upon their economic and social philosophy; and for the peaceful progress of our people during the twentieth century we shall owe most to those judges who hold to a twentieth century economic and social philosophy and not to a long outgrown philosophy, which was itself the product of primitive economic conditions. 1 Even though the above quote was said in the last century, it is still applicable today because judges still do the job of interpreting and applying the law. In doing so they are involved in the law-making process. It has become manifest, as this study will reveal, that Ihe judiciary is involved in the law-making process even though this has proven somewhat irksome to 1 PresidenlTheodore Roosevelt, Message to the Congress of the United States, 8th December 1908, 43rd Congressional Record ,Part 1, p.21 . accept and appreciate, bearing in mind the overriding democratic principles such as seoaration of DOwers and the independence of the judiciary .. Therefore this study endeavours to interrogate the manner by which the South African judiciary has been involved in the law-making process both during the previous apartheid regime and in the present democratic dispensation. Futhermore, this study also attempts to answer the question as to how the judiciary will continue to legislate in the present judicial transformation process without upsetting the imperatives of the doctrine of separation of powers and the independence of the judiciary. / Thesis (LLM)--North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2006.