<p>Banking is topic, practice, business or profession almost as old as the very existence of man, but literarily it can be rooted deep back the days of the Renaissance (by the Florentine Bankers). It has sprouted from the very primitive Stone-age banking, through the Victorian-age to the technology-driven Google-age banking, encompassing automatic teller machines (ATMs), credit and debit cards, correspondent and internet banking. Credit risk has always been a vicinity of concern not only to bankers but to all in the business world because the risks of a trading partner not fulfilling his obligations in full on due date can seriously jeopardize the affaires of the other partner.</p><p>The axle of this study is to have a clearer picture of how banks manage their credit risk. In this light, the study in its first section gives a background to the study and the second part is a detailed literature review on banking and credit risk management tools and assessment models. The third part of this study is on hypothesis testing and use is made of a simple regression model. This leads us to conclude in the last section that banks with good credit risk management policies have a lower loan default rate and relatively higher interest income.</p>

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Η τρέχουσα χρηματοπιστωτική κρίση, έδωσε τη δυνατότητα σε μεγάλο αριθμό ερευνητών να προσπαθησουν να ερμηνεύσουν συγκεκριμένες διαδικασίες που εμφανίζονται σε αυτή την κατάσταση. Ενδιαφέρον αποτελεί η σχέση μεταξύ κρατικών ομολόγων και των CDS. Η ακόλουθη εργασία θα προσπαθήσει μέσα από θεωρητική και εμπειρική ανάλυση να μελετήσει το ασφάλιστρο κινδύνου μεταξύ των δύο μέσων με τη χρήση της θεωρητικών οικονομετρικών μεθόδων. / The current financial crisis, has enabled a large number of researchers trying to interpret specific processes that occur in it. Such interest is the relationship between government bonds and CDS. The following study will attempt to theoretical and empirical study of co-movements of the spread between the two instruments with the use of theoretical econometric methods.

This thesis examines the regulation and development of the moneylending and pawnbroking markets in Britain since the 1870s. The six regulatory episodes examined illustrate how the role of state intervention in these markets has been debated, and how it has evolved. The thesis asks: what were the motivations for reform, which market features were regulators most concerned with, and what were their proposed solutions? It demonstrates how majority and minority viewpoints have informed regulation and documents the often-conflicting expectations of how regulation was meant to influence lending decisions, borrower outcomes and poverty. By identifying the primary motivating factors behind regulation, the study answers why and how some policymakers sought to restrict low-income borrowers from gaining access to credit. It finds that policymakers have shifted their focus from market competition and freedom of consumer choice towards financial inclusion and poverty reduction. The result is a better understanding of the regulation and development of two credit products that were, and remain, vital to the working class. This research shows that the motivations for reform have varied over time. In 1872, 1900, 1927, 2006 and after the Great Recession, policymakers sought to restrict ‘illegitimate, evil and predatory’ small loan lenders, who were accused of exacerbating the conditions of the poor. In 1974, policymakers sought enhanced regulation such as information disclosure to increase market competition and decrease the cost of borrowing. In 2014, the FCA believed that the payday loan market still lacked price competition and implemented price controls as a corrective measure. Less varied were the issues of concern and proposed solutions. This research identifies five main areas of regulatory concern: the high cost of loans, advertising, the use of an annual percentage rate (APR), the legitimacy of moneylenders and pawnbrokers in the financial system and regulatory enforcement. It identifies three main policy responses: price controls, information disclosure and licensing. By analysing the motivations, debated issues and proposed solutions, this research examines wider questions concerning freedom of contract, borrower rationality, bargaining inequity, market segmentation and credit rationing. It contributes to the scholarly and policy dialogue on price controls, information disclosure and the development of non-bank lending. This research also provides new perspectives on the Victorian poverty debate and the modern financial inclusion agenda as they relate to the interaction between regulation, high-cost credit and poverty.

O mercado de crédito brasileiro oferta uma quantidade reduzida de crédito a preços elevados, denotando sinais de um resultado não eficiente. Uma das explicações para esse fato é a existência de altos custos de transação no mercado, que acabam por restringir sua dimensão e elevar o custo total. Um estudo que identifique os custos de transação e seus componentes pode auxiliar na avaliação desse resultado, bem como pode contribuir para o entendimento dos aspectos necessários para o seu aprimoramento. O referencial teórico da Economia dos Custos de Transação fornece uma série de ferramentas analíticas que permitem essa avaliação, focando a existência de custos de transação não-nulos. O objetivo deste estudo é justamente analisar os determinantes dos custos de transação e seus efeitos no mercado de crédito brasileiro. Para tanto, é realizada uma revisão da literatura da Economia dos Custos de Transação, de forma a apresentar o instrumental analítico. Além disso, é feita uma caracterização dos mercados de crédito, apontando para as possíveis fontes de custos de transação. Logo após, analisa-se o mercado de crédito brasileiro sob a ótica Economia dos Custos de Transação e realiza-se um exercício econométrico para avaliar qual o impacto dos custos de transação sobre o a oferta de crédito pessoal no Brasil. Como resultado, destaca-se duas fontes principais de custos de transação. A primeira é a elevada assimetria informacional presente nas transações de crédito, que é fruto de sistemas de compartilhamento de informações pouco desenvolvidos. A segunda é a ineficiência do enforcement, por suas características de lentidão, custos elevados e imprevisibilidade. Essas duas fontes apresentam-se como os principais determinantes dos custos de transação que influenciam negativamente a oferta de crédito no Brasil, e, mais especificamente, o nível de concessões de crédito pessoal. Essa hipótese é ratificada pelos resultados do exercício econométrico realizado no estudo. / The Brazilian credit market supplies little volume of credit at elevated prices, which signals nonefficient market results. The existence of high transaction costs in the credit market is one of the issues that are raised to explain these results because they restrain the credit market dimensions and elevate its costs. Therefore their correct identification could help to evaluate the market results and could also to contribute for the comprehension of the aspects which are necessary for its improvement. The Economic of Transaction Costs offers a theoretical referential that allows for this evaluation to take place by focusing on the existence of non-null transaction costs. This study analyses the transaction-cost determinants of the Brazilian credit market. To do so, the Economics of Transaction Cost literature is briefly presented and it is followed by a credit market description. Subsequently the Brazilian credit market is analyzed and an econometric exercise is offered. As a result, two main sources of transaction costs are identified in the market. The first one is the asymmetric information that is current at credit transactions and has its roots at the underdeveloped information sharing systems. The second one is the inefficient enforcement which is said to be slow, costly and unpredictable. Therefore, those two sources are pointed to be the transaction-cost determinants that adversely impact the credit supply in Brazil and, more specifically, the personal credit market. This hypothesis is reaffirmed by the econometric results presented in the study.

The objective of this research is to investigate the existence of structural changes in unsecured lending time series data and analyse the impact thereof on trends in consumer demand for unsecured credit spanning the years from 2008 to 2015. This is achieved by identifying dates when structural changes occurred over this period. The identified structural break date is linked to an influential economic event or monetary policy change that took place in South Africa of which the impact on three unsecured credit categories are analysed. Unsecured credit growth in South Africa has been subjected to intensive scrutiny since the inception of the National Credit Act (Act No. 34 of 2005) by various regulatory bodies. In 2012 the National Credit Regulator (NCR) commissioned a research study into examining the impact that the National Credit Act (Act No. 34 of 2005) has had on the consumer credit market. The empirical part of this study involved the gathering of time series data on unsecured loans approved, unsecured credit granted per income category and unsecured credit granted from the National Credit Regulator (NCR) database and performing descriptive and econometric analysis. The Zivot-Andrews (1992) and augmented Dickey-Fuller tests determined the break dates which were linked to a significant economic event while the one sample t-test of means compared average loan values before and after the break date. Results of the study indicate that the break dates determined coincided with economic events and monetary policy changes in South Africa, such as the collapse of African Bank, the implementation of the National Credit Amendment Act, prime interest rate movements and the introduction of a debt counselling program by the government. These events, coupled with stricter lending criteria and no further loans being granted to customers already more than three months in arrears, restrained the uptake of unsecured loans to lower and middle income groups. The introduction of new affordability criteria and increasing interest rates in 2014 further negatively impacted demand for unsecured loans. However, higher income earners had the advantage of being able to apply for higher loan amounts. Findings could be used by monetary policymakers and financial institutions to constantly monitor credit trends, improve credit assessment techniques and review lending criteria. / Business Management / M. Com. (Financial Management)

Master of Agribusiness / Department of Agricultural Economics / Christine Wilson / Credit scoring is a tool used to make lending decisions. AgChoice Farm Credit has a dealer financing program called Farm Credit Express that makes lending decisions based on a scoring model. Farm Credit Express is a dealer financing option for farm equipment purchases. AgChoice has generated significant loan volume with this program but has also experienced challenges with loan delinquencies as field staff must service loans that they did not originate. This thesis evaluates loan delinquencies within AgChoice Farm Credit’s Farm Credit Express (“FCE”) program. The thesis develops a regression model that includes delinquencies as the dependent variable and Total AgChoice Borrowing, Original Loan Amount, Farming Segment, CBI Score, AgScore, and FCE Only as the independent variables. The model provides an examination of AgChoice’s Farm Credit Express delinquencies and evaluates the variables mentioned above and their ability to predict delinquencies. The results showed that Total AgChoice Borrowing, Original Loan Amount, CBI Score and FCE only were statistically significant independent variables. Based on results of the model, recommendations were made to potentially reduce future delinquencies in the Farm Credit Express loan portfolio.

Considerado pela literatura moderna como um dos principais problemas da atualidade e que tende a se agravar no futuro caso não sejam revistas políticas e ações governamentais e da sociedade civil, a escassez alimentar vem ganhando espaço nas discussões da sociedade como um todo. De acordo com as projeções da ONU, para alimentar a população estimada para 2050 (algo em torno de 9,6 bilhões de pessoas) será necessário um crescimento da produção alimentar em 60%. Entretanto, para atingir tal meta há de se avaliar as restrições, como expansão de áreas destinadas à produção de alimentos, falta de espaço físico, solo com baixa fertilidade e fontes escassas de água, investimentos e qualidade dos produtos. Outrossim, é muito importante ter uma visão abrangente do sistema alimentar, levando em consideração todos os agentes que podem contribuir para a solução do problema. Nesse cenário, avalia-se a contribuição de organizações como as cooperativas de crédito, que com seu forte cunho social, tem como objetivo organizar a sociedade para fortalecer-se e assim superar, juntos, os desafios apresentados pelo processo de globalização em que estamos inseridos. Nos últimos anos, pesquisadores e estudiosos têm retratado a evolução e importância do cooperativismo de crédito enquanto impulsionado do desenvolvimento local, embasado pelo princípio do “interesse pela comunidade”, que visa promover avanços sociais e econômicos significativos para seus beneficiários e, por conseguinte, atingir a sustentabilidade das organizações e dos próprios indivíduos. Neste contexto, o crédito rural cooperativo é considerado um dos grandes impulsionadores na produção de alimentos sustentáveis e energia limpa. Para as pequenas comunidades essa modalidade de crédito é uma importante ferramenta para fomento da atividade produtiva e, também, na permanência das famílias no campo. Dessa forma, as cooperativas de crédito, através da contribuição mencionada, desempenham um importante papel na melhoria da qualidade de vida das comunidades onde as mesmas estão inseridas. / Considered by modern literature as one of the major problems today and that tends to worsen in the future if political, governmental and civil society actions are not reviewed, the food shortage has been gaining space in discussions of society as a whole. According to the projections, to feed the estimated population of 2050 (around 9.6 billion people) it will be necessary a 60% increase in food production. However, to achieve this goal there is a need to assess the constraints, such as expansion of food producing areas, lack of physical space, low soil fertility and scarce water sources, investments and quality of products. Furthermore, it is very important to have a comprehensive view of the food system, taking into account all actors that can contribute to the solution of the problem. In this scenario, to evaluate the contribution of organizations such as credit unions, that with your strong social nature, aims to organize the society to strengthen themselves and overcome together the challenges presented by the process of globalization we are in. In recent years, researchers and scholars have portrayed the evolution and importance of the credit cooperatives while local development booster, based on the principle of "community interest", which aims to promote social and economic significant advances for their beneficiaries and, consequently, achieve the sustainability of organizations and individuals themselves. In this context, rural credit cooperative is considered one of the great boosters in sustainable food production and clean energy. For small communities this credit mode is an important tool for promoting productive activity and also the permanence of families in the country side. In this way, credit unions, through the mentioned contribution, play an important role in improving the quality of life of the communities where they are inserted.

O mercado de crédito brasileiro oferta uma quantidade reduzida de crédito a preços elevados, denotando sinais de um resultado não eficiente. Uma das explicações para esse fato é a existência de altos custos de transação no mercado, que acabam por restringir sua dimensão e elevar o custo total. Um estudo que identifique os custos de transação e seus componentes pode auxiliar na avaliação desse resultado, bem como pode contribuir para o entendimento dos aspectos necessários para o seu aprimoramento. O referencial teórico da Economia dos Custos de Transação fornece uma série de ferramentas analíticas que permitem essa avaliação, focando a existência de custos de transação não-nulos. O objetivo deste estudo é justamente analisar os determinantes dos custos de transação e seus efeitos no mercado de crédito brasileiro. Para tanto, é realizada uma revisão da literatura da Economia dos Custos de Transação, de forma a apresentar o instrumental analítico. Além disso, é feita uma caracterização dos mercados de crédito, apontando para as possíveis fontes de custos de transação. Logo após, analisa-se o mercado de crédito brasileiro sob a ótica Economia dos Custos de Transação e realiza-se um exercício econométrico para avaliar qual o impacto dos custos de transação sobre o a oferta de crédito pessoal no Brasil. Como resultado, destaca-se duas fontes principais de custos de transação. A primeira é a elevada assimetria informacional presente nas transações de crédito, que é fruto de sistemas de compartilhamento de informações pouco desenvolvidos. A segunda é a ineficiência do enforcement, por suas características de lentidão, custos elevados e imprevisibilidade. Essas duas fontes apresentam-se como os principais determinantes dos custos de transação que influenciam negativamente a oferta de crédito no Brasil, e, mais especificamente, o nível de concessões de crédito pessoal. Essa hipótese é ratificada pelos resultados do exercício econométrico realizado no estudo. / The Brazilian credit market supplies little volume of credit at elevated prices, which signals nonefficient market results. The existence of high transaction costs in the credit market is one of the issues that are raised to explain these results because they restrain the credit market dimensions and elevate its costs. Therefore their correct identification could help to evaluate the market results and could also to contribute for the comprehension of the aspects which are necessary for its improvement. The Economic of Transaction Costs offers a theoretical referential that allows for this evaluation to take place by focusing on the existence of non-null transaction costs. This study analyses the transaction-cost determinants of the Brazilian credit market. To do so, the Economics of Transaction Cost literature is briefly presented and it is followed by a credit market description. Subsequently the Brazilian credit market is analyzed and an econometric exercise is offered. As a result, two main sources of transaction costs are identified in the market. The first one is the asymmetric information that is current at credit transactions and has its roots at the underdeveloped information sharing systems. The second one is the inefficient enforcement which is said to be slow, costly and unpredictable. Therefore, those two sources are pointed to be the transaction-cost determinants that adversely impact the credit supply in Brazil and, more specifically, the personal credit market. This hypothesis is reaffirmed by the econometric results presented in the study.

Considerado pela literatura moderna como um dos principais problemas da atualidade e que tende a se agravar no futuro caso não sejam revistas políticas e ações governamentais e da sociedade civil, a escassez alimentar vem ganhando espaço nas discussões da sociedade como um todo. De acordo com as projeções da ONU, para alimentar a população estimada para 2050 (algo em torno de 9,6 bilhões de pessoas) será necessário um crescimento da produção alimentar em 60%. Entretanto, para atingir tal meta há de se avaliar as restrições, como expansão de áreas destinadas à produção de alimentos, falta de espaço físico, solo com baixa fertilidade e fontes escassas de água, investimentos e qualidade dos produtos. Outrossim, é muito importante ter uma visão abrangente do sistema alimentar, levando em consideração todos os agentes que podem contribuir para a solução do problema. Nesse cenário, avalia-se a contribuição de organizações como as cooperativas de crédito, que com seu forte cunho social, tem como objetivo organizar a sociedade para fortalecer-se e assim superar, juntos, os desafios apresentados pelo processo de globalização em que estamos inseridos. Nos últimos anos, pesquisadores e estudiosos têm retratado a evolução e importância do cooperativismo de crédito enquanto impulsionado do desenvolvimento local, embasado pelo princípio do “interesse pela comunidade”, que visa promover avanços sociais e econômicos significativos para seus beneficiários e, por conseguinte, atingir a sustentabilidade das organizações e dos próprios indivíduos. Neste contexto, o crédito rural cooperativo é considerado um dos grandes impulsionadores na produção de alimentos sustentáveis e energia limpa. Para as pequenas comunidades essa modalidade de crédito é uma importante ferramenta para fomento da atividade produtiva e, também, na permanência das famílias no campo. Dessa forma, as cooperativas de crédito, através da contribuição mencionada, desempenham um importante papel na melhoria da qualidade de vida das comunidades onde as mesmas estão inseridas. / Considered by modern literature as one of the major problems today and that tends to worsen in the future if political, governmental and civil society actions are not reviewed, the food shortage has been gaining space in discussions of society as a whole. According to the projections, to feed the estimated population of 2050 (around 9.6 billion people) it will be necessary a 60% increase in food production. However, to achieve this goal there is a need to assess the constraints, such as expansion of food producing areas, lack of physical space, low soil fertility and scarce water sources, investments and quality of products. Furthermore, it is very important to have a comprehensive view of the food system, taking into account all actors that can contribute to the solution of the problem. In this scenario, to evaluate the contribution of organizations such as credit unions, that with your strong social nature, aims to organize the society to strengthen themselves and overcome together the challenges presented by the process of globalization we are in. In recent years, researchers and scholars have portrayed the evolution and importance of the credit cooperatives while local development booster, based on the principle of "community interest", which aims to promote social and economic significant advances for their beneficiaries and, consequently, achieve the sustainability of organizations and individuals themselves. In this context, rural credit cooperative is considered one of the great boosters in sustainable food production and clean energy. For small communities this credit mode is an important tool for promoting productive activity and also the permanence of families in the country side. In this way, credit unions, through the mentioned contribution, play an important role in improving the quality of life of the communities where they are inserted.