Thesis. (M. Tech. (Dept. of Biosciences, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences))--Vaal University of Technology, 2010 / Methods for detecting the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts have been developed and continuous improvement is being done to improve the recovery rate of the target protozoa. Rand Water has adopted their method for isolation and detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in water from United State Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) Method 1623, 1999. In 2005 changes were made by US-EPA to the Method 1623. A study was done to improve the performance of the Rand Water Method 06 (2007) used for isolation and detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. Three methods namely: Rand Water Method 06 (2007), US-EPA Method 1623 (2005) and Drinking Water Inspectorate standard operating procedures (2003) were compared and key different steps in the methods were identified (wrist action speed, centrifuge speed, immunomagnetic separation procedures and addition of pre-treatment steps). Different experiments were conducted to verify and evaluate the difference between two wrist action shaker speeds, three different centrifuge speeds, two slightly different immunomagnetic separation procedures and when a pre-treatment step was included in the method. Three different types of water matrices (reagent grade water, drinking water and raw water) were used for the experiments and secondary validation. Data obtained from the experiments and secondary validation was statistically analyzed to determine whether there was a significant difference in the recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. Secondary validation of the Rand Water Method 06 (2007) was performed by implementing the study experiments‟ findings into the method. The results indicated an increase in the recovery rate of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts when data was compared with the previous secondary validation report. The mean recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts in reagent grade water samples increased from 31% to 55%, drinking water samples increased from 28% to 44% and raw water decreased from 42% to 29%. The mean recovery of Giardia cysts in reagent grade water samples increased from 31% to 41%, drinking water samples increased from 28% to 46% and raw water decreased from 42% to 32%. Furthermore, even though the recovery rate of raw water decreased the use of pre-treatment buffer reduced the number of IMS performed per sample by reducing the pellet size. Enumeration of microscope slides was also easier as there was less background interference. The optimization of the Rand Water Method 06 (2007) was successful as the recovery rate of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water increased. All the changes that were verified and that increased the recovery rate were incorporated into the improved Rand Water Method 06.

L’aigua és un bé escàs i finit, i degut a factors com l’increment de la població i el canvi climàtic, les previsions indiquen que a mig termini un 40% de la població viurà amb un estès hídric significatiu. Això podria tenir efectes molt greus en el desenvolupament i en el benestar a les àrees afectades. És normal doncs, que els darrers anys hagi acrescut considerablement l’interès en l’obtenció de recursos hídrics alternatius i sostenibles com la regeneració d’aigua i la reutilització. Els avenços tecnològics per al tractament d’aigües estan fent possible l’obtenció d’aigua regenerada de qualitat que pot ser utilitzada per a restauració ambiental, per al reg en general i per a usos urbans no potables. Tot i així, aquesta activitat podria suposar un perill per la presència de patògens d’origen entèric (bacteris, virus i protozous) i també per la presència de microcontaminants com productes farmacèutics, hormones o subproductes de desinfecció. El RD 1620/2007 estableix el marc legal de la reutilització, i es basa en E. coli com a indicador de qualitat microbiològica de l’aigua regenerada (AR). Tot i així, E. coli pot no ser suficient en relació a la presència de patògens vírics o protozous. Un exemple és Cryptosporidium, que s’ha convertit en un patogen de referència ja que ha causat nombrosos brots de criptosporidiosi d’origen hídric. L’ús de microorganismes indicadors alternatius com bacteriòfags (SOMCPH o FRNAPH) o espores de clostridis reductors del sulfit (SRC), pot ser molt útil per a indicar la presència o per modelar el comportament de patògens vírics o de protozous. En aquesta tesi s’estudia d’una banda, la qualitat microbiològica de l’AR que produeixen cinc plantes de tractament, analitzant E. coli, indicadors alternatius, i Cryptosporidium com a patogen de referència. Es fan assajos de QMRA lligats a Cryptosporidium en les EDARs estudiades, i finalment s’estudien les implicacions, d’un procés de reutilització per a augmentar el cabal del riu Llobregat uns Km més a munt del punt de captació de la potabilitzadora. Els resultats d’aquesta part indiquen que la reutilització per a potabilització en l’escenari estudiat, no hauria de suposar cap risc per a la salut de les persones des de la perspectiva de les malalties infeccioses. S’observa que l’ús d’un altre indicador, a part d’E. coli, significaria una millora en la gestió de l’AR ja que permetria fer un seguiment molt més acurat tant de la qualitat de l’aigua com de l’eficiència dels diferents tractaments. És recomanable l’ús de tractaments multibarrera durant la regeneració per poder garantir una aigua segura, i en aquest sentit, la inclusió de llum UV és vital en la prevenció del risc associat a Cryptosporidium en AR. D’altra banda s’estudien processos fotocatalítics d’oxidació avançada (POAs) com a processos de regeneració en l’eliminació de microorganismes d’efluents secundaris reals. D’una banda, amb l’ús de làmpades d’UV i de l’altra amb l’ús de la radiació solar com a font de llum UV. Per fer-ho es va analitzar la inactivació de diferents indicadors (SOMCPH, FRNAPH, CB390PH i SRC) davant alguns POA: H2O2/UV, TiO2/UV i foto-Fenton. Els resultats indiquen que l’ús de POA té un gran potencial com a tractaments terciaris en el futur, especialment si estan basats en la radiació solar, ja que podrien ser una opció ambientalment sostenible i alhora eficaç en el tractament d’aigua. Tot i així, és necessari segui investigant la possible aplicació d’aquestes tecnologies ja que encara hi ha certes limitacions que fan que de moment no es facin servir de manera més estesa. Finalment, els resultats pel que fa a la inactivació de microorganismes ratifiquen que l’ús d’un altre indicador seria útil per assegura la qualitat microbiològica de l’aigua. / Population growth and climate change may worsen the current water scarcity problems, which could have serious effects on the development and on the public health of the affected areas. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in the improvement of sustainable water resources such as water reclamation. Technological advances in water treatment are making it possible to obtain reclaimed water (RW), which can be used for instance, for environmental restoration or for irrigation. However, water reuse may represent a health risk due to the presence of enteric pathogens or micropollutants. Spanish regulations on RW are based on E. coli, but it may not be useful to protect against viral o protozoan diseases. Cryptosporidium has become a reference pathogen since it has caused numerous waterborne outbreaks. Thus, the use of alternative indicators such as somatic coliphages (SOMCPH) or spores of sulphite reducing clostridia (SRC) may be better to monitor presence and behaviour of certain pathogens. The aims of this thesis were: (i) to study the microbiological quality of RW analysing Cryptosporidium as the reference pathogen and different microbial indicators such as E. coli, SOMCPH and SRC; (ii) to perform QMRA analysis related to the presence of Cryptosporidium in RW; (iii) to analyse the implications of planned-IPR (indirect potable reuse) in the Llobregat River; (iv) to test the effect of different AOP (advanced oxidation processes) on indicator microorganisms for water reclamation purposes. From the infectious diseases point of view, the health risks due to waterborne pathogens linked to planned-IPR in the Llobregat River can be safely managed. Furthermore, the use of another indicator, besides E. coli, would improve RW management. Multi-barrier systems including UV for water treatment are recommended to ensure RW quality, especially with regard to Cryptosporidium inactivation. AOPs have a great potential for water reclamation in the future, especially those based on solar light, because they are sustainable and effective technologies for the removal of microorganisms as well as for the mineralisation of emerging micropollutants. Within the solar based procedures, photo-Fenton showed the best performance in microbial inactivation during the experiments. However, it is necessary to further investigate this AOP to overcome some of its actual limitations.

PhD (Microbiology) / Department of Microbiology

Plasmodien spp. sind obligat intrazellulär lebende Parasiten, welche einen evolutionär konservierten aktinabhängigen molekularen Motor für die Fortbewegung und den Wirtszellein- und -austritt nutzen. In dieser Arbeit werden die Aktinregulatoren Adenylyl- Zyklase- assoziierte Protein (C-CAP), Profilin sowie die Aktin depolymerizierenden Faktoren 1 und 2 (ADF1, ADF2) in Plasmodium berghei charakterisiert. Die Geninaktivierung von C-CAP besitzt keinen Einfluss auf die Entwicklung von pathogenen Blutstadien. C-cap(-) Ookineten bewegen sich jedoch deutlich langsamer, sind aber in der Lage den invertebraten Wirt zu infizieren. Defekte treten während der extrazellulären Replikationsphase im Mosquito auf und führen zu Abbruch des Lebenszykluses. Die erfolgreiche Komplementierung der Defekte mit dem orthologen Gen aus Cryptosporidium parvum CpC-CAP bestätigt die funktionale Redundanz zwischen beiden Proteinen. Profilin, als ein weiteres G-Aktin bindendes Protein, ist hingegen nicht in der Lage die Defekte des c-cap(-) Parasiten auszugleichen. Mittels transgener Parasiten welche ein C-CAPmCherry Fusionsprotein exprimieren, wird das C-CAP Protein im Zytoplasma lokalisiert. Erstmals wird mit dieser Arbeit ein G-Aktin bindendes Protein, C-CAP beschrieben, welches eine essentielle Funktion während der Oozystenreifung in Plasmodium berghei besitzt. Die Transkription der Aktinregulatoren Profilin, ADF1 und ADF2 wird in Sporozoiten drastisch herunterreguliert und Profilin kann als Protein nicht mehr nachgewiesen werden. Um die Funktion von C-CAP und Profilin zu überprüfen, wurden beide Proteine spezifisch in Sporozoiten überexprimiert. Diese Parasiten sind nicht in der Lage die Speicheldrüsen des Wirtes zu besiedeln, was zum Abbruch des Lebenszykluses führt. Anhand dieser Ergebnisse entwickele ich ein „minimalistisches“ Model zur Beschreibung der Aktinregulation in Sporozoiten in welchem das ADF1 als regulatorisches Protein im Mittelpunkt steht. / Plasmodium spp. are obligate intracellular parasites, which employ an conserved actin-dependent molecular motor machinery that facilitates their motility, host cell invasion and egress. In this work I report implications of the actin-regulators adenylyl cyclase-associated protein (C-CAP), profilin and actin depolymerization factor 1 and 2 (ADF1, ADF2) in distinct and previously unanticipated cellular processes during the life cycle of in the rodent malarial parasite Plasmodium berghei. Fluorescent tagging of the endogenous C-CAP genetic locus with mCherry revealed cytosolic distribution of the protein. Gene deletion demonstrates that the G-actin binding protein C-CAP is entirely dispensable for the pathogenic blood stages. Ookinetes show reduced motility, but are competent infecting the mosquito host. Defects emerging in the extracellular replication phase, leading to attenuation of oocyst maturation. Successful trans-species complementation with the C. parvum C-CAP ortholog, rescues the c-cap(-) phenotype and proves functional redundancy. The actin regulator profilin fails to rescue the defects of c-cap(-) parasites, despite sharing its actin sequestering activity with C-CAP. Taken together, C-CAP is the first G-actin sequestering protein of Plasmodium species that is not required for motility but performs essential functions during oocyst maturation. Characterization of the actin regulators profilin, ADF1 and ADF2 revealed dramatic transcriptional down-regulation and the absence of the profilin protein in sporozoites. To test whether G-actin binding proteins interfere with sporozoite functions, I ectopically overexpressed of profilin and C-CAP stage-specifically in sporozoites. This conducted to abolishment of salivary gland invasion and lifecycle arrest. Based on these unexpected findings and the available literature data, I developed a “minimalistic model” for actin regulation in sporozoites that predicts ADF1 as the main actin-turnover regulating factor.