Despite the ubiquity of the term ‘organisational culture’ in both popular and scholarly management literature, it remains an ambiguous concept, whose practical application is recognised as being far from universally successful. Models which seem to be preferred by practitioners are often criticised as being static or mechanistic, while more dynamic scholarly approaches tend to discount the possibility of deliberately influencing organisations at the cultural level. This dissertation, instead of focussing on culture as some sort of objective or unchanging attribute of an organisation, treats it as a phenomenon emerging from social interaction and individual sense-making. It draws on, and extends, George Kelly’s Personal Construct Psychology to build a framework for understanding the production of meaning by individuals in their social context, and how this contributes to the establishment of the collective boundaries between which cultural effects are observed. This framework is applied to the case of a business school attached to a large university, which is first absorbed into its Commerce Faculty, and then dissolved into a new Department, as the overall university structure is modified. Grounded Theory methodology is used to develop an approach to the description of the cultural interaction and changes that occur, and to generate theory that goes some way to explaining how and why they do. The theory gives insight into how latent cultural distinctions become, or are made, salient and the different means by which divisions may be resolved or superseded, sometimes resulting in conflict. Implications are explored for the management of organisations undergoing change, particularly where this involves merging or restructuring organisational units, and for the training and development of managers who are to be involved in such activities. ¶ At a theoretical level, building on a constructivist and processual ontological base, the dissertation makes contributions to the understanding of behaviour in organisations and draws on pragmatic epistemologies such as those advanced by George Herbert Mead. It brings concepts from psychology, sociology and management disciplines to bear on the problem of cultural interaction, and suggests that integrating them in this way may enhance their value in this context. ¶ By focussing on culture as a phenomenon produced at the interface of collective constructions, the dissertation proposes that it be viewed as fundamentally dynamic once eloquently described as ‘multiple cross-cutting contexts’ – but, nevertheless, explains how it may be recognised more through its apparent intractability than its fluidity. Whilst rejecting managerialist approaches which would suggest that culture and, through it, people, can be manipulated at will to reliably produce desired effects, the dissertation suggests ways in which insight into cultural interactions might be generated for those who are participating in them, and options developed to influence these interactions that might otherwise not have been available. It therefore has potentially valuable implications for management practice.

<p>Today, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) is a fast growing economy, which is still in a developing phase. According to this fact, many Western companies are expanding and establishing in China nowadays. When expanding to foreign markets and foreign cultures, adapting to the local values is something which needs to be considered by foreign managers. A vital aspect is how to motivate the employees. The way employees want to be motivated may differ a lot from one country to another due to cultural differences. Since not much research has been performed on Swedish companies established in China and how they motivate their Chinese employees, this dissertation tries to fill that gap.The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the gap between Western management practices and motivation of Eastern employees. To find out if there are different needs and wants of employees in developing countries as opposed to developed ones. A deductive research approach is used in this dissertation.A two perspective study has been performed, qualitative case studies and a quantitative survey. On one side, Western managers views on how to motivate their Eastern employees as case studies. On the other side, a survey performed on a Chinese population and their view of important motivation factors. Some concepts were tested in order to investigate if the Western managers and the Chinese population have the same views on motivation and how to overcome cultural differences. First, results have shown that the “third culture” as a management tool will have an influence on employee motivation. Second, clear goals and rules will have an influence on employee motivation. However, the use of cooperative goals for Eastern employees was not confirmed to be useful, according to the results of this study. As a conclusion, the findings from this study indicate that there is a gap between Western managers and Eastern employees’ beliefs regarding motivation. However, to overcome cultural differences when operating in cross-cultural settings it is necessary to create a “third culture”. This study has strengthened the theory of the “third culture”.Analysis and conclusions from this dissertation may be of some value for Swedish managers. The value in this dissertation lies in that it can give a “hint” regarding motivation to managers of companies which operate in China. Some theories studied in this dissertation have not been confirmed. Therefore, managers should consider theories, but also try to adjust them in order to make them fit to their specific business.</p>

<p>This study is based upon the double proposition that a transfer of modern management knowledge is an important component of the development assistance given to Third World countries and that this knowledge has a cultural basis that</p><p>restricts its transferability. The very essence of the cultural basis is thought to consist of culture contingent implicit assumptions about phenomena in the reality. Problems experienced in five cases of transfer of management knowledge are analysed in search for such implicit assumptions questioned. A paradigm comprising fifteen basic assumptions attached to the images of different management relevant phenomena is identified in the analysis carried out. Different corroborating conditions that make experiences from management-inaction corroborate the validity of the basic assumptions are also identified. The recognition of the relationships between basic assumptions and environmental conditions is held to be crucial to the understanding of how and why the cultural basis of modern management knowledge makes its transfer difficult. The identified relationships between basic assumptions and corroborating conditions has implications for two major issues discussed in cross-cultural management research: (i) it supports the convergence hypothesis, and (ii) it can be concluded that the perceived appropriateness of the “modern” delegativeparticipative management style hinges on the “industrialising” of environmental conditions. In addition to the implications for the cross-cultural management discourse, it is found that the perspective developed has implications for the institutionalism approach to management. In particular, it points to the importance of normative messages and collectively shared perceptions as isomorphic forces. It also points to important mechanisms behind institutional variability and change. The relationship between basic assumptions and environmental conditions is central to a strategy for transfer of modern management knowledge that is discussed in the end of the study. The importance of a cognitive transformation is emphasised as a prerequisite for a long-term success of such a transfer.</p>

<p>Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 1990</p>

This study is based upon the double proposition that a transfer of modern management knowledge is an important component of the development assistance given to Third World countries and that this knowledge has a cultural basis that restricts its transferability. The very essence of the cultural basis is thought to consist of culture contingent implicit assumptions about phenomena in the reality. Problems experienced in five cases of transfer of management knowledge are analysed in search for such implicit assumptions questioned. A paradigm comprising fifteen basic assumptions attached to the images of different management relevant phenomena is identified in the analysis carried out. Different corroborating conditions that make experiences from management-inaction corroborate the validity of the basic assumptions are also identified. The recognition of the relationships between basic assumptions and environmental conditions is held to be crucial to the understanding of how and why the cultural basis of modern management knowledge makes its transfer difficult. The identified relationships between basic assumptions and corroborating conditions has implications for two major issues discussed in cross-cultural management research: (i) it supports the convergence hypothesis, and (ii) it can be concluded that the perceived appropriateness of the “modern” delegativeparticipative management style hinges on the “industrialising” of environmental conditions. In addition to the implications for the cross-cultural management discourse, it is found that the perspective developed has implications for the institutionalism approach to management. In particular, it points to the importance of normative messages and collectively shared perceptions as isomorphic forces. It also points to important mechanisms behind institutional variability and change. The relationship between basic assumptions and environmental conditions is central to a strategy for transfer of modern management knowledge that is discussed in the end of the study. The importance of a cognitive transformation is emphasised as a prerequisite for a long-term success of such a transfer.

Today, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) is a fast growing economy, which is still in a developing phase. According to this fact, many Western companies are expanding and establishing in China nowadays. When expanding to foreign markets and foreign cultures, adapting to the local values is something which needs to be considered by foreign managers. A vital aspect is how to motivate the employees. The way employees want to be motivated may differ a lot from one country to another due to cultural differences. Since not much research has been performed on Swedish companies established in China and how they motivate their Chinese employees, this dissertation tries to fill that gap.The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the gap between Western management practices and motivation of Eastern employees. To find out if there are different needs and wants of employees in developing countries as opposed to developed ones. A deductive research approach is used in this dissertation.A two perspective study has been performed, qualitative case studies and a quantitative survey. On one side, Western managers views on how to motivate their Eastern employees as case studies. On the other side, a survey performed on a Chinese population and their view of important motivation factors. Some concepts were tested in order to investigate if the Western managers and the Chinese population have the same views on motivation and how to overcome cultural differences. First, results have shown that the “third culture” as a management tool will have an influence on employee motivation. Second, clear goals and rules will have an influence on employee motivation. However, the use of cooperative goals for Eastern employees was not confirmed to be useful, according to the results of this study. As a conclusion, the findings from this study indicate that there is a gap between Western managers and Eastern employees’ beliefs regarding motivation. However, to overcome cultural differences when operating in cross-cultural settings it is necessary to create a “third culture”. This study has strengthened the theory of the “third culture”.Analysis and conclusions from this dissertation may be of some value for Swedish managers. The value in this dissertation lies in that it can give a “hint” regarding motivation to managers of companies which operate in China. Some theories studied in this dissertation have not been confirmed. Therefore, managers should consider theories, but also try to adjust them in order to make them fit to their specific business.

Managing a diverse workforce has become a growing challenge for leaders, due to increased globalization and demographic changes. As a result, leaders that can handle those challenges become important for successful business across borders. With respect to this, the complexities of leadership in Russia is an under-researched and increasingly important research area, due to the rapid changes that have occurred in the country the last 25 years. This study explores the challenges that Swedish expatriate leaders face whilst operating in Russia and, furthermore, how they tackle them. The study is of explorative character, with a qualitative research methodology, and is based on 17 interviews with different Swedish leaders across various industries. The findings show that Swedish leaders experience challenges with the following: involving employees in decision making processes; handling steep hierarchies; finding the right people in the dynamic Russian labour market; comprehending the idiosyncrasies of Russian culture. In conclusion, the study shows that Swedish leaders are keen to implement a Swedish company culture based on empowerment, although the specificities of being an expatriate leader in Russia makes it necessary to adapt to some of the conflicting expectations of the Russian employees.

Since China opened up to the outside world in 1978, a tremendous economic development took place. China is today still a fast growing economy. With a huge population that makes up for an enormous market along with relatively low labor costs, China is very attractive for foreign companies. When foreign companies expand and establish in China, many aspects must be taken into consideration. Aspects like cultural differences must be considered by the foreign managers as well as how to manage the Chinese employees in human relations. Having innovative employees are beneficial to any company. However, the way to influence employees to be innovative can differ from one culture to another. There is little research done on Swedish companies operating in China and how they influence their Chinese employees to be innovative. The aim of this thesis is to provide some insight into this matter. The thesis takes a deductive approach, and the investigation is performed quantitatively by a survey. The survey is answered by the Chinese employees that are currently working in Swedish companies where they are to rank the presence of several Strategic Human Resource Management practices. Also, their perceptions on Chinese cultural aspects are investigated. The results from this thesis will point out the most successful practices in influencing the Chinese employees’ innovativeness, but also the cultural factors that can obstruct innovativeness. This research may be of value for Swedish companies, as well for Swedish managers hoping to establish themselves in China.

Nowadays, an increasing number of global retailers such as IKEA, Carrefour and Auchan, are expanding their business internationally: internationalization is seen as a way to face competitors as well as to enhance position on the market. In particular, emerging markets are becoming a fertile field for investing resources due to their fast economic development and growing disposable income of the local population. A number of market actors (or stakeholders) affect or are affected by the internationalization process, and therefore stakeholder management determines its success to a large extent. Thus, stakeholder management competences are becoming increasingly important in today’s business world. Our study addresses stakeholder management strategy applied by a Swedish global retailer (IKEA) when internationalizing to the Russian market. We also try to identify the main cultural differences between the focal organization and the Russian stakeholders, and the way in which the company faces and overcomes those diversities. Thus, we first give a brief overview of stakeholder management approach applied by IKEA on the corporate level, and then focus on particular practices adopted in Russia. Although the IKEA Group has internal and external stakeholder management framework, we find out that no explicit stakeholder management methodology is used in Russia. The strategy of managers is emergent and implicit, but within the company guidelines and code of conduct and in accordance with organizational culture and values. Although we outline IKEA Russia’s interaction with all main stakeholder groups on the Russian market, we examine more in detail the strategies applied towards the company’s three most critical stakeholders: government, suppliers and employees. Hence, IKEA Russia opts for long-term close collaboration with suppliers through knowledge and expertise exchange, close relationship-building, improvement of working standards, and even financial investments in some cases. Employees are granted good working conditions and respectful attitude, different compensation package, possibilities for personal and professional development. Government, identified by our respondents as the most challenging stakeholder, is approached through lobbying on different levels, development of personal relationships, exchange of experience and best practices. However, when interacting with authorities, IKEA also has to adapt, be “flexible within the limits”, and focus on the long-term. Having outlined real-life strategies applied by IKEA in Russia, we compare them with the results of theoretical modeling. In order to come up with theoretical propositions for stakeholder management of IKEA in Russia, we developed a stakeholder management model, which comprised all the most relevant theories. We, thus, discover that theoretical suggestions for stakeholder management are close to what is done by management in practice. However, the theoretical model overlooks “soft” aspects of dealing with stakeholders: local and organizational culture, turbulent business environment, fast pace of doing business. Moreover, it is difficult for a single stakeholder management framework to give a one-right stakeholder management approach: it is important to combine different theories and use them for complementing each other. This allows to get a more profound insight into managing stakeholders. We develop our research based on the information we could gather from IKEA’s representatives as well as secondary data sources, such as books, two doctoral theses, and a vast amount of journal articles. Our respondents were asked to answer questions throughout which their perceptions about the company’s stakeholders have been evaluated. This has helped the researchers to draw conclusions and answer the research questions.

The decentralization of cultural production in China coincided with the introduction of economic and political reforms in 1979. The subsequent shift from a system of state propaganda production towards a market-oriented dealer-critic system of cultural production required a wider range of expertise beyond deep knowledge of the Western modern art canon or domain expertise. This dissertation investigates how the field of contemporary Chinese art (CCA) is constituted and transformed through a division of labor that reflects varieties of expertise using empirical data from 89 in-depth interviews with leading cultural professionals working in the CCA field, historical archival records, and participant observation. The study revises the conventional conception that domain expertise consistently shapes cultural fields. The main finding is that the kinds of expertise used are associated with how the CCA field has developed over the past three decades. Cultural professionals mobilize non-cultural expertise as well as cultural capital to enlist international support for CCA, establish aesthetic value, and extend the boundaries of cultural organizations that filter and deliver CCA to a broad audience. These results reinforce the agency perspective in institutional studies. Individual actors drive change in the CCA field while being embedded within it. Overall, the transformation of the field of contemporary Chinese art encompasses pragmatic adaptations to environmental shifts in resource distribution, the availability of new technologies of cultural production, and wider political and economic transformations. / Sociology