La Trypanosomose Humaine Africaine (THA) ou maladie du sommeil est une infection provoquée par un protozoaire du genre Trypanosoma. La recherche de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques est nécessaire afin d’améliorer l’efficacité et la tolérance des traitements. Dans un premier travail, nous avons étudié l’importance de CYP51 (stérol 14α-déméthylase), une cible potentielle, par la technique d’interférence à ARN (RNAi). Nous avons démontré le caractère essentiel de cette enzyme pour le parasite, ainsi que les conséquences de sa déplétion sur la cytodiérèse. De plus, la survie de souris infectées par la souche CYP51RNAi induite était prolongée, montrant l’implication de CYP51 dans la virulence. La combinaison du posaconazole, un dérivé triazolé inhibant CYP51, à l’éflornithine a montré un effet similaire à la combinaison nifurtimox-éflornithine dans un modèle murin. Nos résultats soulignent l’intérêt potentiel d’un traitement ciblant CYP51 dans la trypanosomose. Du fait de l’importance de l’immunodépression dans la THA et de la capacité du trypanosome à échapper au système immunitaire de l’hôte, nous avons étudié, dans un deuxième travail, l’effet de T. gambiense et de son sécrétome (protéines excrétées/sécrétées) sur des cellules dendritiques humaines (DCs) in vitro. Nous avons ainsi montré une altération de la maturation des DCs induite par le LPS en présence du sécrétome. Nous avons également montré qu’une des protéines de ce sécrétome, TbKHC1, est exprimée par différentes espèces de trypanosomes. Elle est impliquée dans l’induction de l’arginase macrophagique chez la souris, un mécanisme d’échappement au système immunitaire. Ces travaux apportent des éléments pour une meilleure compréhension des phénomènes immunopathologiques rencontrés, dans la perspective de thérapeutiques ciblées et d’une approche vaccinale. / Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, an extracellular eukaryotic flagellate parasite, is the main causative agent of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), also known as sleeping sickness. Trypanosomes have developped efficient mechanisms to escape the host immune response. New therapeutic options are needed for patients with HAT. Sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) is a potential drug target but its essentiality has not been studied in T. brucei. In a first study, we demonstrated its essentiality by RNA interference (CYP51RNAi) in vitro. CYP51RNAi induction caused morphological defects with multiflagellated cells, suggesting cytokinesis dysfunction. Additionally, the survival of CYP51RNAi infected-mice was improved, showing CYP51 RNAi effect on trypanosomal virulence. During infection with virulent strains, posaconazole-eflornithine and nifurtimox-eflornithine combinations showed similar improvement in mice survival. Thus, our results provide support for a CYP51 targeting based treatment in HAT. In a second work, we studied the innate host immune system characteristics in trypanosomiasis, as a severe immune dysregulation is present in HAT. To analyse the potential immunomodulatory activity of T. gambiense in human settings, we assess the effect of its secretome on dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro, using human monocyte-derived DCs. A significant inhibition of the LPS-induced maturation of DCs was observed with secretome. In line with this impairment, secretome down regulated cytokines production by LPS-activated DCs. TbKHC1, a kinesin heavy chain, is a component of the parasite secretome. We confirmed its role in parasitic escape to immune system by inducing arginase activity, in a murine model. Our results provide new information about the immune system characteristics during trypanosomiasis, which may help to uncover new therapeutic approachs in HAT.

P450s are heme containing enzymes which affect oxidation of substrates via catalytic intermediates having transient lifetimes. These oxidative catalytic intermediates are formed by a sequential interplay of electrons and protons at the active site of the enzyme bearing molecular dioxygen. The proton transfer to the active site from bulk solvent is coordinated by an “acid-alcohol” pair of active site residues which are conserved in all P450s. Sterol 14α-demethylases (CYP51) are P450 enzymes which catalyze oxidative deformylation of lanosterol in the cholesterol/ergosterol biosynthetic pathway. Both cholesterol and ergosterol are important regulators of membrane fluidity. CYP51 differs from other P450s in that the acid in the acid-alcohol pair in the active site is replaced by a His residue. This enzyme is present in tuberculosis (TB) causing pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). This finding was significant for primarily two reasons. The first one being the baffling presence of CYP51 in Mtb, as Mtb is not known to have any endogenous sterol biosynthetic pathways. The second being that CYP51 is a validated drug target in treating fungal infections. Thus given the global resurgence of multidrug resistant strains of Mtb and the deadly coexsistence of Mtb in immunocompromised HIV patients, CYP51 may be an ideal drug target for new generation of antimycobacterial drugs. The Mtb CYP51 enzyme was chosen to study the proton transfer pathways in the active site based on the outcome of explicit solvent molecular dynamics and hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations performed in our laboratory. Based on these calculations of CYP51 catalysis, Glu173 was implicated to be the proton source. Proton transfer to the active site occurred by a coordinated shuttling via four water molecules, His259 and Thr260. To experimentally verify the roles of Glu173, His259 and Thr260 they were mutated to alanine and biophysically characterized. Ferredoxin, an accessory protein required to shuttle electrons from NADPH to the CYP51 active site for catalysis, was also cloned using ligation independent cloning. We were successfully able to reconstitute the electron transport chain for CYP51. The mutants were found to differentially bind type I and type II enzymes. Based on biophysical characterization, Thr260 can be implicated to have a role in modulating the spin state of the enzyme. The Mtb CYP51 enzyme was chosen to study the proton transfer pathways in the active site based on the outcome of explicit solvent molecular dynamics and hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations performed in our laboratory. Based on these calculations of CYP51 catalysis, Glu173 was implicated to be the proton source. Proton transfer to the active site occurred by a coordinated shuttling via four water molecules, His259 and Thr260. To experimentally verify the roles of Glu173, His259 and Thr260 they were mutated to alanine and biophysically characterized. Ferredoxin, an accessory protein required to shuttle electrons from NADPH to the CYP51 active site for catalysis, was also cloned using ligation independent cloning. We were successfully able to reconstitute the electron transport chain for CYP51. The mutants were found to differentially bind type I and type II enzymes. Based on biophysical characterization, Thr260 can be implicated to have a role in modulating the spin state of the enzyme.

A doença de Chagas, parasitose causada pelo Trypanosoma cruzi, é doença prevalente na América Latina. Estima-se que cerca de 10 milhões de pessoas estão sob o risco de infecção e, em 2008, registraram-se mais de 10 mil óbitos devido à doença. Os únicos dois fármacos disponíveis na terapêutica, nifurtimox e benznidazol, são mais eficazes no tratamento da doença no início da fase aguda. Entretanto, a fase crônica da doença não possui tratamento. O nitrofural (NF), fármaco antimicrobiano, destaca-se por possuir atividade contra o T. cruzi, porém, apresenta toxicidade. Seu derivado hidroximetilado, o hidroximetilnitrofural (NFOH), por sua vez, mostrou maior atividade antichagásica e menor toxicidade. Ante a necessidade de novos fármacos antichagásicos, a existência de alvos terapêuticos promissores como a 14α-esterol desmetilase (CYP51) e a cruzaína e mediante utilização do bioisosterismo como ferramenta de modificação molecular, realizou-se a triagem virtual de 144 ligantes análogos do NFOH pelo método de docking com o programa GOLD para a CYP51 de T. cruzi. Adicionalmente, realizou-se estudo qualitativo dos campos de interação moleculares (MIFs) com o programa GRID para a enzima humana e do parasita, homólogas entre si, estudo que revelou 9 resíduos de aminoácidos no sítio ativo da enzima parasitária que podem ser explorados no planejamento de inibidores seletivos. Neste trabalho, obtiveram-se 5 compostos inéditos, caracterizados por determinação da faixa de fusão, análise elementar, técnicas de espectroscopia no infravermelho, espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear de 1H,13C, HSQC, HMBC, HETCOR e NOESY, e a atribuição dos sinais foi realizada com o auxílio de técnicas de modelagem molecular. Testaram-se 4 compostos contra a forma amastigota de T. cruzi em células da linhagem U2OS. Todos os compostos apresentaram atividade da ordem de micromolar e índices de seletividade satisfatórios. O composto LAPEN-2901 teve sua estrutura elucidada por cristalografia de raios X, apresentou toxicidade duas vezes menor que o NFOH e potência semelhante à do composto de referência benznidazol, porém menor eficácia. Os resultados obtidos ressaltam a importância de grupos nitro, 1,2,4-triazólicos e tiossemicarbazônicos para o planejamento de derivados eficazes no tratamento da fase crônica da doença de Chagas. / Chagas disease, parasitosis caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a disease that predominates in Latin America. It is estimated that 10 million people are under the risk of infection and, in 2008, more than 10 thousand deaths were registered. The only two drugs available in the therapeutics, nifurtimox and benznidazole, showed to be more effective in the acute phase of the disease. However, there is no choice for the chronic phase. Nitrofurazone (NF), an antimicrobial drug, has activity against T. cruzi, although being toxic. Its hydroxymethyl derivative, the hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH), showed to be more active and less toxic than the prototype. Considering the need for new antichagasic drugs, the existence of promising new therapeutic targets, as 14α-esterol demethylase and cruzain, and by employing the bioisosterism approach, a virtual screening using T. cruzi CYP51 was performed for 144 NFOH analogues. Additionaly, a qualitative molecular interaction field study was performed, revealing 9 aminoacids in the parasitic enzyme relevant for selectivity. Five novel compounds were synthesized, characterized by melting range, elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy, 1H and 13C NMR as well as HSQC, HMBC, HETCOR and NOESY experiments, in which the signal assigning were aided using molecular modeling techniques Four compounds were tested against T. cruzi amastigotes in infected U2OS cells. All compounds were sufficiently selective towards T. cruzi and showed trypanomicidal activity in low micromolar range. The compound LAPEN-2901 had its structure determined using X-ray crystallography and showed lower toxicity than NFOH and potency similar to benznidazole, but lower efficacy. These results highlight the importance of the 1,2,4-triazolic, thiosemicarbazonic and nitro group moieties for designing new efficient compounds for the chronic phase of Chagas disease.

A doença de Chagas, parasitose causada pelo Trypanosoma cruzi, é doença prevalente na América Latina. Estima-se que cerca de 10 milhões de pessoas estão sob o risco de infecção e, em 2008, registraram-se mais de 10 mil óbitos devido à doença. Os únicos dois fármacos disponíveis na terapêutica, nifurtimox e benznidazol, são mais eficazes no tratamento da doença no início da fase aguda. Entretanto, a fase crônica da doença não possui tratamento. O nitrofural (NF), fármaco antimicrobiano, destaca-se por possuir atividade contra o T. cruzi, porém, apresenta toxicidade. Seu derivado hidroximetilado, o hidroximetilnitrofural (NFOH), por sua vez, mostrou maior atividade antichagásica e menor toxicidade. Ante a necessidade de novos fármacos antichagásicos, a existência de alvos terapêuticos promissores como a 14α-esterol desmetilase (CYP51) e a cruzaína e mediante utilização do bioisosterismo como ferramenta de modificação molecular, realizou-se a triagem virtual de 144 ligantes análogos do NFOH pelo método de docking com o programa GOLD para a CYP51 de T. cruzi. Adicionalmente, realizou-se estudo qualitativo dos campos de interação moleculares (MIFs) com o programa GRID para a enzima humana e do parasita, homólogas entre si, estudo que revelou 9 resíduos de aminoácidos no sítio ativo da enzima parasitária que podem ser explorados no planejamento de inibidores seletivos. Neste trabalho, obtiveram-se 5 compostos inéditos, caracterizados por determinação da faixa de fusão, análise elementar, técnicas de espectroscopia no infravermelho, espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear de 1H,13C, HSQC, HMBC, HETCOR e NOESY, e a atribuição dos sinais foi realizada com o auxílio de técnicas de modelagem molecular. Testaram-se 4 compostos contra a forma amastigota de T. cruzi em células da linhagem U2OS. Todos os compostos apresentaram atividade da ordem de micromolar e índices de seletividade satisfatórios. O composto LAPEN-2901 teve sua estrutura elucidada por cristalografia de raios X, apresentou toxicidade duas vezes menor que o NFOH e potência semelhante à do composto de referência benznidazol, porém menor eficácia. Os resultados obtidos ressaltam a importância de grupos nitro, 1,2,4-triazólicos e tiossemicarbazônicos para o planejamento de derivados eficazes no tratamento da fase crônica da doença de Chagas. / Chagas disease, parasitosis caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a disease that predominates in Latin America. It is estimated that 10 million people are under the risk of infection and, in 2008, more than 10 thousand deaths were registered. The only two drugs available in the therapeutics, nifurtimox and benznidazole, showed to be more effective in the acute phase of the disease. However, there is no choice for the chronic phase. Nitrofurazone (NF), an antimicrobial drug, has activity against T. cruzi, although being toxic. Its hydroxymethyl derivative, the hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH), showed to be more active and less toxic than the prototype. Considering the need for new antichagasic drugs, the existence of promising new therapeutic targets, as 14α-esterol demethylase and cruzain, and by employing the bioisosterism approach, a virtual screening using T. cruzi CYP51 was performed for 144 NFOH analogues. Additionaly, a qualitative molecular interaction field study was performed, revealing 9 aminoacids in the parasitic enzyme relevant for selectivity. Five novel compounds were synthesized, characterized by melting range, elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy, 1H and 13C NMR as well as HSQC, HMBC, HETCOR and NOESY experiments, in which the signal assigning were aided using molecular modeling techniques Four compounds were tested against T. cruzi amastigotes in infected U2OS cells. All compounds were sufficiently selective towards T. cruzi and showed trypanomicidal activity in low micromolar range. The compound LAPEN-2901 had its structure determined using X-ray crystallography and showed lower toxicity than NFOH and potency similar to benznidazole, but lower efficacy. These results highlight the importance of the 1,2,4-triazolic, thiosemicarbazonic and nitro group moieties for designing new efficient compounds for the chronic phase of Chagas disease.

Tuberculosis (TB) affects nearly a third of the world’s population and has been termed a ‘Global Emergency’ by the WHO. The emergence of multi/extensively drug resistant (M/XDR) strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of TB, and the increasing incidences of azole drug resistant sterol demethylases (CYP51) from pathogenic fungi has propelled studies to understand mechanisms of azole drug resistance on the drug target CYP51. Since Mtb is devoid of a sterol biosynthetic pathway, the presence and study of CYP51B1 and 19 other Cytochrome P450s in its genome is important to clarify host-pathogen mechanism of infection and the potential of using azole drugs to treat TB. In this study, CYP51B1 from Mtb was used as the model enzyme to study CYP51 mutants from Candida albicans fluconazole-resistant clinical strains. By protein engineering methods, F89H, L100F, S348F, G388S and R391K CYP51B1 mutants were made and azole drug binding properties were investigated using stopped-flow kinetics and static equilibrium methods. Dissociation constant (Kd) values were derived for a range of commercially available azole drugs by fitting the equilibrium binding data to a hyperbolic equation. Kd values for stopped-flow kinetics were derived by plotting observed binding rates (kobs) across different azole drug concentrations against time, followed by fitting multiple kobs data to a linear equation to derive azole drug de-binding (koff) and binding (kon) rate constants – the Kd was obtained by koff/kon. Extinction coefficient for heme b content in mutants and Wild Type (WT) CYP51B1 were an average of ɛ419 = 96.1 mM-1 cm-1. Biochemical characterisation of the mutants were carried out using established experiments on CYP51 – reduction of Fe(III)-heme to Fe(II)-heme, NO binding to Fe(III)-heme, rates of CO-Fe(II) adduct formation and rates of collapse of the P450 to P420 species in the presence of CO and estriol with redox partners from Mtb. In order to elucidate the effects of the above mutations on the iron-heme catalytic region, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments were carried out with and without azole drugs. Circular dichroism (CD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and multi-angled laser light scattering (MALLS) analysis confirmed that F89H, R391K and L100F mutants were stable and homogeneous. Crystallogenesis was successful for the above mentioned mutants and atomic structures were obtained for all mutants and WT CYP51B1 (in ligand-bound and substrate-free forms), except for S348F and G388S mutants which were expressed as inclusion bodies and 60% holoenzyme, respectively. Reconstituted catalytic assays to determine the sterol demethylating propensity of the mutants were carried out using redox partners from Mtb or E. coli, and with lanosterol and dihydrolanosterol as the surrogate substrates. Redox potentiometry showed similar potentials to WT for all mutants except for the G388S mutant which was relatively positive (–102 mV). Redox cycling experiments followed by EPR analysis for mutants and WT resulted in a novel P450 high-spin species at g value 5.84 (80 %) which gradually collapsed to the initial low spin state over 48 h. Expression trials were concurrently carried out on two other Mtb P450 genes – CYP123 (Rv0744c) and CYP136 (Rv3059) products of which may have similar functions to CYP51B1 or may share similar redox partners. CYP123 is located on the same operon as CYP51B1 while CYP136 has a 29% sequence identity to another CYP51 from a marine slime bacterium. Although further work is necessary, in this study CYP123 was expressed totally as inclusion bodies while CYP136 was expressed as soluble apoprotein fused with trigger factor chaperone.

The cytochromes P450 (CYPs) are a superfamily of biological catalysts that are ubiquitous throughout the biological domain. CYPs are heme-b containing monooxygenases which oxidize substrates with the help of accessory redox partners. CYP substrates include endogenous compounds required for many biological functions and homeostasis, such as steroids, as well as the majority of clinically used drugs and environmental xenobiotics. The majority of studies that have been performed to date are on P450cam (CYP101) from Pseudomonas putida. Of the numerous reactions catalyzed by CYPs, unactivated carbon-carbon bond cleavage, is one of particular versatility. Being unique in their catalytic mechanisms, the C-C bond cleaving enzymes and in particular CYP51 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis are though to be capable of utilizing multiple reactive oxygen intermediates. During the process of C-C bond cleavage, CYP51 catalyzes two classical hydroxylation reactions. The final reaction culminates in an enigmatic third step which cleaves a C-C bond, liberates formate, and installs a 14,15 double bond within its steroid substrate. The mechanism of CYP51s final step is still unclear and the exact activated oxygen species has yet to be observed. CYP51 is also distinct from most CYPs owing to the fact that the acid functionality of the conserved active site “acid-alcohol pair” found in most CYPs, is replaced by a histidine. This study aimed to trap and characterize dioxygen reactive intermediates, and elucidate the role of the unique acid-alcohol pair in the formation and stabilization of these intermediates. This study demonstrates our success in generating, stabilizing, and spectroscopically characterizing reactive dioxygen intermediates in Mtb CYP51. As the life-time of the oxyferrous intermediate in Mtb CYP51 is extremely short at ambient temperatures, this work has shown the laboratory’s expertise in being able to generate reduced oxyferrous intermediates at cryogenic temperatures. These intermediates have only been generated in a handful of cytochromes P450 and as such this work adds critical information to the small body of work currently reported.

Submitted by Nadia Maria Poloni null (nadiapoloni@gmail.com) on 2016-04-16T00:04:34Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Nadia Poloni - completa.pdf: 1931593 bytes, checksum: e8e92f6dc3b3aa46033959f97f62b795 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-04-18T12:53:57Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 polani_nm_me_ilha.pdf: 1931593 bytes, checksum: e8e92f6dc3b3aa46033959f97f62b795 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-18T12:53:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 polani_nm_me_ilha.pdf: 1931593 bytes, checksum: e8e92f6dc3b3aa46033959f97f62b795 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-22 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O fungo ascomiceto, Pyricularia oryzae, tem distribuição mundial como patógeno do arroz, mas recentemente emergiu como patógeno causando a brusone do trigo no Brasil. Os grupos de fungicidas estrobirulinas e triazóis tem sido intensivamente utilizados para manejo de doenças do trigo há cerca de três décadas. Há relato de resistência de P. oryzae do trigo a estrobirulinas no Brasil e a ineficácia dos fungicidas triazóis aponta para um cenário semelhante. Os triazóis, inibidores da desmetilação de esteróis (DMI), inibem a biossíntese de ergosterol e possuem como alvo a enzima 14α-demetilase, codificada pelo gene cyp51. Em nosso estudo, determinamos as distribuições de frequência da sensibilidade de 180 isolados de P. oryzae do trigo amostrados de sete estados do Centro-Sul do Brasil, com base na EC50 a tebuconazol e epoxiconazol. Descrevemos, também, a presença de mutações no gene cyp51A e reconstruímos sua filogenia reticulada para esclarecer a relação evolutiva entre haplotipos. Relatamos que todas as populações de P. oryzae amostradas se mostraram insensíveis aos fungicidas testados, comparando-se com as doses recomendadas para o manejo da doença no campo. Com base na sequência do gene cyp51A de P. oryzae do trigo, foram detectados oito haplotipos distintos. Foram encontradas sete mutações não-sinônimas, que podem estar correlacionadas com a resistência à DMI's. / The fungus ascomycete Pyricularia oryzae has worldwide distribution as rice pathogen, but it has recently emerged as pathogen causing wheat blast in Brazil. The strobirulin and azole fungicides have been intensively used for management of wheat diseases in the last three decades. The report of resistance of P. oryzae from wheat to strobirulins in Brazil and the inefficiency of azole fungicides indicates a similar scenario. The triazoles represented sterols demethylation inhibitor fungicides group (DMI), characterized by inhibiting the biosynthesis of ergosterol and their target is the 14α-demethylase enzyme, encoded by the cyp51 gene. We determined the azole sensitivity frequency distributions of 180 isolates of P. oryzae of wheat sampled in seven states of the south-central Brazil, based on the EC50 of tebuconazole and epoxiconazole. We described the presence of mutations in the cyp51A gene and built their reticulate phylogeny to identify the evolutionary relationship among haplotypes. We reported that all P. oryzae populations sampled were insensitive to the azoles when compared to the recommended doses for the management of the disease in the field. Based on the sequence of cyp51A gene from P. oryzae of wheat, eight distinct haplotypes were detected. We found seven non-synonymous mutations that could be correlated with resistance to DMI's.

Orientador: Paulo Cezar Ceresini / Resumo: O fungo ascomiceto, Pyricularia oryzae, tem distribuição mundial como patógeno doarroz, mas recentemente emergiu como patógeno causando a brusone do trigo noBrasil. Os grupos de fungicidas estrobirulinas e triazóis tem sido intensivamenteutilizados para manejo de doenças do trigo há cerca de três décadas. Há relato deresistência de P. oryzae do trigo a estrobirulinas no Brasil e a ineficácia dos fungicidastriazóis aponta para um cenário semelhante. Os triazóis, inibidores da desmetilaçãode esteróis (DMI), inibem a biossíntese de ergosterol e possuem como alvo a enzima14α-demetilase, codificada pelo gene cyp51. Em nosso estudo, determinamos asdistribuições de frequência da sensibilidade de 180 isolados de P. oryzae do trigoamostrados de sete estados do Centro-Sul do Brasil, com base na EC50 a tebuconazole epoxiconazol. Descrevemos, também, a presença de mutações no gene cyp51A ereconstruímos sua filogenia reticulada para esclarecer a relação evolutiva entrehaplotipos. Relatamos que todas as populações de P. oryzae amostradas semostraram insensíveis aos fungicidas testados, comparando-se com as dosesrecomendadas para o manejo da doença no campo. Com base na sequência do genecyp51A de P. oryzae do trigo, foram detectados oito haplotipos distintos. Foramencontradas sete mutações não-sinônimas, que podem estar correlacionadas com aresistência à DMI's. / Abstract: The fungus ascomycete Pyricularia oryzae has worldwide distribution as rice pathogen, but it has recently emerged as pathogen causing wheat blast in Brazil. The strobirulin and azole fungicides have been intensively used for management of wheat diseases in the last three decades. The report of resistance of P. oryzae from wheat to strobirulins in Brazil and the inefficiency of azole fungicides indicates a similar scenario. The triazoles represented sterols demethylation inhibitor fungicides group (DMI), characterized by inhibiting the biosynthesis of ergosterol and their target is the 14α-demethylase enzyme, encoded by the cyp51 gene. We determined the azole sensitivity frequency distributions of 180 isolates of P. oryzae of wheat sampled in seven states of the south-central Brazil, based on the EC50 of tebuconazole and epoxiconazole. We described the presence of mutations in the cyp51A gene and built their reticulate phylogeny to identify the evolutionary relationship among haplotypes. We reported that all P. oryzae populations sampled were insensitive to the azoles when compared to the recommended doses for the management of the disease in the field. Based on the sequence of cyp51A gene from P. oryzae of wheat, eight distinct haplotypes were detected. We found seven non-synonymous mutations that could be correlated with resistance to DMI's. / Mestre

Practical resistance of Erysiphe necator to quinone outside inhibitors (QoIs) is now widespread, and resistance to demethylation inhibitors (DMIs) has also developed.  The goal of this research was to characterize fungicide resistance by elucidating resistance mechanisms and determining its stability.  QoI resistance persisted for several years in a field population after QoI application ended.  Resistant isolates were highly competitive in mixed populations in competition assays under laboratory conditions, indicating a lack of fitness cost.  In one competition trial under field conditions, resistance frequency declined, possibly due to spore migration and influx of background inoculum, but in a second trial, it did not decline.  Double resistance to QoI and DMI was detected and DMI application may have been partially responsible for maintaining QoI resistance in the field.  One isolate with QoI resistance but an undetectable level of the major QoI mutation was shown to be heteroplasmic -- resistant strains could be selected from this isolate. DMI resistance mechanisms in E. necator included the Y136F mutation in CYP51 and cyp51 over-expression.  The first mechanism was present in almost all isolates with substantial levels of resistance, and cyp51 expression level was correlated with resistance level.  Three cyp51 genotypes were detected.  Wildtype isolates with the TAT genotype were sensitive to DMIs, while isolates with increased resistance had either a TTT or TWT genotype; TWT indicated the presence of both wildtype and mutant alleles.  Cyp51 was expressed 1.4 to 19 times more in mutants than in wildtype.  It is not known whether the significant differences in cyp51 expression level among isolates and among genotype groups are due to gene copy number variation.  DMI resistance was found to decline after years of subculturing, and the decline appeared to occur after a few culture transfers of field samples on fungicide-free host leaves.  The observed decline, together with the finding that isolates could be "trained" to increase resistance, and may be slightly induced in cyp51 expression when successively challenged to grow in increasing fungicide concentration, indicate instability of DMI resistance. / Ph. D.

While the role of cholesterol in liver carcinogenesis remains controversial, hepatocellular carcinoma generally prevails in males. Herein, we uncover pathways of female-prevalent progression to hepatocellular carcinoma due to chronic repression of cholesterogenic lanosterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) in hepatocytes. Tumors develop in knock-out mice after year one, with 2:1 prevalence in females. Metabolic and transcription factor networks were deduced from the liver transcriptome data, combined by sterol metabolite and blood parameter analyses, and interpreted with relevance to humans. Female knock-outs show increased plasma cholesterol and HDL, dampened lipid-related transcription factors FXR, LXRα:RXRα, and importantly, crosstalk between reduced LXRα and activated TGF-β signalling, indicating a higher susceptibility to HCC in aging females. PI3K/Akt signalling and ECM-receptor interaction are common pathways that are disturbed by sex-specific altered genes. Additionally, transcription factors (SOX9)2 and PPARα were recognized as important for female hepatocarcinogenesis, while overexpressed Cd36, a target of nuclear receptor RORC, is a new male-related regulator of ECM-receptor signalling in hepatocarcinogenesis. In conclusion, we uncover the sex-dependent metabolic reprogramming of cholesterol-related pathways that predispose for hepatocarcinogenesis in aging females. This is important in light of increased incidence of liver cancers in post-menopausal women.