Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a ubiquitous pathogen affecting over 95% of the world’s population. While infection is typically asymptomatic in healthy individuals, the virus persists life-long in its host and can be reactivated following withdrawal of immune control. As such, it remains a serious clinical concern in individuals who are immunocompromised, such as newborns and neonates, transplant and/or chemotherapy recipients, and HIV/AIDS patients. CMV also has the ability to cause immunosuppression, the mechanisms of which include defective antigen presentation to T cells and interference with haematopoiesis in the bone marrow (BM). Due to strict species specificity, murine CMV (MCMV) provides a relevant model for the study of CMV modulation of the immune system in vivo in its natural host. The type I interferons (IFNs) represent a major family of cytokines involved in the early response to MCMV infection. Their anti-viral activity and regulation of NK cell activation and cytotoxicity are of significant interest in the context of MCMV infection, as genetic resistance to MCMV is mediated by the ability of Ly49H+ NK cells to directly recognise and lyse infected cells. Chapter 2 comprises an analysis of acute MCMV infection in the absence of type I IFN activity. These studies were conducted in IFNAR1 and IFNAR2 deficient mice, which lack components of the type I IFN receptor. Data obtained from these studies confirmed the essential requirement for type I IFN in controlling viral titres, promoting expansion of splenic Ly49H+ NK cells, and inducing early activation of NK cell cytotoxicity. In addition, our data depicted an accumulation of infected myeloid cells in the absence of effective NK cell-mediated control. This was paralleled by a significant increase in the level of serum TNF-a and IFN-¿, an effect which in some cases has been linked to serious pathological disease. Thus, the data described in this chapter provide an insight into the consequences arising from delayed NK cell responses to MCMV infection in the absence of type I IFN. vii Type I IFN can also potentially affect BM haematopoiesis. BM atrophy and impairment of myelopoiesis are serious consequences of CMV infection. During acute MCMV infection we consistently observed a profound loss of splenic dendritic cells (DCs) in BALB/c mice. Since all DC subsets are derived from BM haematopoietic progenitor cells, the possibility that MCMV might interfere with BM haematopoiesis and DC differentiation was explored. Chapters 3 and 4 describe the impact of acute MCMV infection on BM progenitors, with particular emphasis on the differentiation capabilities of these cells in ex vivo culture systems. Chapter 3 focuses on the effect of MCMV infection on BM cellularity and frequency of specific BM progenitor populations. A thorough analysis of contributing factors, such as viral infection of BM cells, involvement of type I and II IFNs, progenitor cell trafficking and NK cell activity in the BM compartment, was conducted. Our results showed that a severe loss of BM cellularity occurs in MCMV-infected mice. Furthermore, when BM cells from MCMV-infected mice were cultured ex vivo in granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), there was an impairment in their ability to differentiate into DCs.

Orientador: Sandra Cecilia Botelho Costa / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T12:05:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Parola_DanielaCorte_M.pdf: 2987280 bytes, checksum: 06dcaf150379c56fac854a42d4bc3453 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: O membro protótipo da subfamília dos betaherpesvírus, o citomegalovírus humano (HCMV), é o patógeno mais importante em pacientes transplantados, incluindo aqueles que receberam células de medula óssea ou enxerto de células tronco. Testes diagnósticos para identificar precocemente a infecção ativa pelo HCMV e uma terapia antiviral pré-clínica são medidas significantes para o controle desse vírus. Dois betaherpesvírus descobertos recentemente, o herpesvírus humano 6 (HHV-6) e o herpesvírus humano 7 (HHV-7) são geneticamente mais próximos um ao outro do que ao HCMV. Ambos têm alta prevalência na população em geral. Esses vírus não são tão patogênicos quanto o HCMV, porém o HHV-6 pode causar doenças como encefalite, hepatite e supressão da medula óssea. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o impacto clínico desses três vírus em transplantados de medula óssea. A monitorização pela N-PCR é importante método precoce para o controle da infecção ativa ou da doença pelo HCMV. A reação em cadeia da polimerase tipo nested (N-PCR) foi utilizada prospectivamente na monitorização de 43 pacientes para identificar as infecções ativas e a doença causada pelo HCMV, HHV-6 e HHV-7 por um período superior a 150 dias pós-transplante. Quarenta e um pacientes receptores adultos de células de medula óssea ou células tronco, com doença maligna e dois pacientes com doença não-maligna foram incluídos nesse estudo. Aciclovir foi administrado em baixas doses, como terapia profilática para infecção por herpesvírus tipo 1. Pacientes com infecção ativa por HCMV receberam terapia pré-clínica com ganciclovir. As incidências de positividade para infecção ativa por HCMV no sangue periférico, HHV-6 e HHV-7 no soro detectadas por N-PCR foram de 72%, 4,6% e 13,9%, respectivamente. A doença por HCMV ocorreu em 8 dos 43 pacientes (18,9%), no trato gastrintestinal e todos apresentaram N-PCR positiva para infecção por HCMV e um apresentou N-PCR positiva para HHV-6 no soro. Nenhum dos pacientes com doença por HCMV apresentou infecção ativa por HHV-7. A infecção ativa foi por HHV-6 e HHV-7 foi baixa em nossa casuística. A doença por HCMV permanece a mais a causa mais importante de impacto clínico após o transplante de medula óssea. Estudos adicionais necessitam serem feitos para uma melhor compreensão da relação entre os herpesvírus HCMV, HHV-6 e HHV-7 nos pacientes transplantados de medula óssea e células tronco periféricas / Abstract: The prototype member of the Betaherpesvirus subfamily, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), is the most important infectious pathogen in transplant recipients, including those receiving bone marrow (BM) or stem cell (SC) grafts. Rapid diagnostic tests to identify active CMV infection, and pre-emptive therapy are significant improvements in the management of CMV. Two newly identified betaherpesviruses, human herpesvirus-6 (HHV-6) and human betaherpesvirus-7 (HHV-7), are genetically more closely related to each other than to CMV. Both are highly prevalent in the general population. These viruses are not as pathogenic as CMV but HHV-6 can cause disease such as encephalitis, hepatitis and bone marrow suppression. The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical impact of these three viruses in bone marrow and stem cell transplantation patients. Monitorization with Nested-PCR is important in the control of active CMV infection or disease. Nested polymerase chain reaction (N-PCR) was used prospectively to monitor 43 patients for evidence of active infections and diseases caused by HCMV, HHV-6 and HHV-7 for up to 150 days after transplant. Forty-one adult recipients of BM or SC graft with malignant diseases and two patients with non-malignant diseases, and with a risk for CMV disease (D+/R+; D+/R-) were enrolled in this study. Aciclovir was used before the transplant at low doses, as prophylactic therapy for HHV-1. Patients with active CMV infections received pre-emptive therapy with ganciclovir. The incidence of positive active HCMV in blood, HHV-6 and HHV-7 in serum detected by Nested-PCR was 72%, 4.6% and 13.9%, respectively. HCMV disease occurred in 8/43 patients (18.6%), in the gastrointestinal tract and all presented positive N-PCR for active HCMV infection and one presented active infection by HHV-6 detected in serum. None of the patients presented active HHV-7 infection. Co-infection by HHV-6 and HHV-7 was low. CMV disease remains the most important disease after BMT. Future studies can be made to a better understanding in relationship between HCMV, HHV-6 and HHV-7 in BM or SC transplantation recipients / Mestrado / Ciencias Basicas / Mestre em Clinica Medica

L'infection par le cytomégalovirus humain (HCMV) est une cause majeure de mortalité chez les patients immunodéprimés et représente la première cause d'infection congénitale. HCMV est un virus complexe qui s'est adapté au système immunitaire humain en développant de multiples mécanismes d'évasion. L'infection primaire à HCMV est associée à une réplication virale prolongée avant l'établissement de la latence. Il a été montré que cette intense réplication lors de la phase initiale de l'infection était associée à une épuisement fonctionnel des lymphocytes T CD4 spécifiques du virus. Alors que les anticorps jouent un rôle dans la limitation de la dissémination virale et la prévention de l'infection à HCMV, les réponses des lymphocytes B sont peu caractérisées. Dans le présent travail, nous avons étudié l'impact de l'infection à HCMV sur le phénotype et la fonctionnalité des sous-populations de LB du sang circulant chez une cohorte de femme enceintes avec une primo-infection par HCMV en utilisant comme contrôles des sujets sains séropositifs et séronégatifs pour HCMV ainsi que des femmes enceintes séronégatives. Nous montrons que l'infection primaire par HCMV induit une expansion significative et prolongée de deux sous-populations de LB :les LB mémoires activés (CD27+CD21low) et mémoires atypiques (CD27-CD21low), précédemment décrites lors d'infection chroniques. Les LB mémoires atypiques démontrent des signes d'épuisement fonctionnel comme en témoigne une expression élevée de récepteurs inhibant le BCR et une moindre réponse à la stimulation in vitro mesurée par la production de TNF-α. Les expansions de ces deux sous-populations sont corrélées entre elles et liées à la virémie. Ces résultats contribuent à la compréhension de la régulation des réponses des LB lors d'infections virales, en montrant que l'épuisement fonctionnel de LB, précédemment décrit lors d'infections chroniques, peut également survenir lors d'infections primaires.<p>Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons étudié l'acquisition des réponses B mémoires spécifiques de HCMV dirigées contre la principale glycoprotéine de surface, la glycoprotéine B (gB), et deux polypeptides du tégument. Lors de l'infection primaire par HCMV, la production d'anticorps neutralisant le virus, dirigés contre les glycoprotéines d'enveloppe, est retardée par rapport aux anticorps dirigés contre le tégument qui sont non neutralisant. Nous montrons que le phénotype des LB mémoires spécifiques de gB est différent de celui des LB mémoires spécifiques du tégument. La majorité des LB mémoires spécifiques de gB exprime un phénotype CD27+CD21+ alors que la majorité de ceux du tégument exprime le phénotype CD27+CD21low. Nous montrons par la suite chez des sujets sains que ces deux sous-populations de LB mémoires présentent des différences phénotypiques, au niveau de l'expression de récepteurs liés au "trafficking" cellulaire ainsi qu'au niveau de la fonctionnalité. Les LB mémoires CD21low, contrairement au LB mémoires CD21high, expriment des taux bas des récepteurs CXCR5 et CCR7, qui permettent la migration vers les centres germinatifs, mais des taux élevés de CD11c promouvant la migration vers les tissus périphériques. Après stimulation in vitro, les LB mémoires CD21low vont avoir une capacité de production d'immunoglobulines immédiate mais une réponse proliférative plus faible comparée aux LB mémoires CD21+. Nous démontrons la relevance de cette division des LB mémoires sur base de l'expression du CD21 dans un modèle de vaccination de rappel contre la toxoïde tétanique (TT). Après rappel, nous observons une expansion significative de LB mémoires spécifiques de la TT exprimant un phénotype CD27+CD21lowCXCR5lowCD11chigh. Nous proposons ainsi un nouveau mécanisme de manipulation des réponses humorales par des pathogènes qui se traduit par une limitation de l'induction de réponses B effectrices. Nos travaux permettraient également une meilleure approche des réponses B mémoires physiologiques chez l'homme en proposant une classification des LB mémoires basées sur leur fonctionnalité et leur phénotype.<p><p>Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is a major cause of mortality in immunocompromised patients and is the first cause of congenital infection worldwide. HCMV is a complex virus that has developed multiples immune evasions mechanisms during its co-evolution with mankind. Although often asymptomatic, primary HCMV infection is associated with an intense and prolonged viral replication. It has been previously shown that this intense viral replication is associated with functional exhaustion of virus-specific CD4+ T cells. Although neutralizing antibodies limits viral dissemination and play a role in the prevention of HCMV infection, B cell responses during HCMV infection have been poorly studied so far.<p>In this work, we have studied the impact of HCMV infection on the phenotype and functionality of peripheral-blood B cell subsets in a cohort of pregnant women with a primary HCMV infection. Controls were healthy seronegative and seropositive HCMV donors and HCMV seronegative pregnant women. We show that primary HCMV infection induces a significant and prolonged expansion of two B-cell subsets, previously described in chronic infections :activated memory B cells (MBC) (CD27+CD21low) and atypical MBC (CD27-CD21low). Atypical MBC display signs of functional exhaustion with increased expression of inhibitory receptors and a lower response to in vitro stimulation as assessed by TNF-α production. Expansion of these two subsets are correlated and higher in subjects with detectable viremia. These results contribute to the understanding of the regulation of B cell responses during viral infections and indicate that B cell exhaustion, previously described during chronic infections, can be observed in primary infection.<p>Next, we have characterized the acquisition of HCMV-specific B cell responses directed against envelope glycoprotein B (gB) and two tegument polypeptides (pp150 and pp52). During primary HCMV infection, the production of neutralizing antibodies targeting envelope glycoproteins is delayed when compared to non-neutralizing anti-tegument antibodies. We show that gB and tegument-specific MBC have distinct phenotype during primary HCMV infection. The majority of gB-specific MBC have a CD27+CD21+ phenotype while the majority of tegument-specific MBC have a CD27+CD21low phenotype. We show that CD27+CD21+ and CD27+CD21low MBC express different pattern of chemokine receptors pattern but also have distinct functionality. CD27+CD21low MBC, on the contrary to CD27+CD21+ MBC, express low levels of CXCR5 and CCR7 that favor migration to lymph nodes and germinal centers but express high levels of CD11c that promotes migration to inflammatory tissues.<p>In vitro stimulation of sorted subsets of healthy individuals indicates that CD27+CD21low MBC have higher capacity of immediate immunoglobulin production but a lower proliferative potential as compared to CD27+CD21+ MBC. We further show the relevance of a division of MBC subsets based on CD21 expression in a model of TT booster immunization. Following booster immunization, a significant expansion of TT-specific MBC expressing the phenotype CD27+CD21lowCXCR5lowCD11chigh is observed. <p>We propose that HCMV manipulates the host humoral response by limiting the induction of gB-specific CD27+CD21low "effector" MBC. Our work also indicates that human MBC physiological responses should be studied according to their respective phenotype and functions.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences médicales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

O citomegalovírus (CMV) é uma séria ameaça aos receptores de transplante de medula óssea. A reativação está associada com uma imunidade mediada por células TCD8+ defeituosa. Nosso objetivo foi correlacionar as diferentes subpopulações de células TCD8+ com a reconstituição imunológica dos pacientes, especificamente a imunidade anti-CMV, analisando as subpopulações de células T infundidas nas diferentes modalidades de transplante de medula óssea. Receptores de transplante alogênico de células tronco mobilizadas para o sangue periférico (n=16) ou coletadas diretamente da medula óssea (n=28) e receptores de transplante autólogo de células tronco mobilizadas para o sangue periférico (n=22) foram avaliados. Verificamos que as transferências de células mobilizadas para o sangue periférico dos doadores, tanto nos transplantes alogênicos como autólogos, são proporcionalmente enriquecidas por subpopulações de células memória efetora e efetora, comparadas às transferências de células procedentes diretamente da medula óssea. Este enriquecimento por subpopulações de células TCD8+ mais diferenciadas foi também correlacionado com maior número de células contendo altos níveis de granzima B, considerado um marcador para linfócitos citotóxicos, sendo também encontrado em maior número nas transferências de células do sangue periférico. Entretanto, no pós-transplante, observou-se que somente os receptores de transplante autólogo de células tronco mobilizadas para o sangue periférico, e não os das outras modalidades de transplante, exibiam números elevados de células T CD8+ de memória-efetora e efetora. Ao mesmo tempo, estes receptores apresentaram menos freqüentemente episódios de reativação pelo CMV, e mais freqüentemente produziram IFN-gama em resposta ao CMV. Portanto, a transferência de células do sangue periférico, desde que em ambiente autólogo, está associada não só com a transferência de células TCD8+ com um fenótipo mais maduro, mas também com uma persistência mais prolongada das mesmas, podendo proporcionar uma resposta imunológica antiviral mais rápida e eficiente, como esperado para as células de memória versus naïve. / Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a serious threat to the recipients of bone marrow transplantation. Reactivation is associated with defective CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity. We aimed to correlate the different subsets of CD8+ T cells with the patients\' immune reconstitution, specifically anti CMV immunity, by analyzing the CD8+ T cell subsets infused in the different types of bone marrow transplantation. Recipients of allogeneic transplant of peripheral blood stem cells (n=16) or bone marrow (n=28) and recipients of autologous transplant of peripheral blood stem cells (n=22) were evaluated. We show that infusions of stem cells derived from donor\'s peripheral blood, either allogeneic or autologous, are proportionally enriched for the memory-effector and effector phenotypes, compared to the infusions of stem cells of bone marrow origin. This increased number of more differentiated subsets of CD8+ T cells was also correlated with an increased number of cells containing high levels of granzyme B, which is another reliable marker of cytotoxic lymphocyte, and which was also more evident in autologous recipients. However, post-transplant, we observed that only the recipients of autologous peripheral blood cells, and not the recipients of the other transplant modalities, exhibited very high numbers of memory-effector and effector TCD8+ cells. At the same time, they less frequently presented CMV reactivation, and more frequently produced IFN-gama in response to CMV antigens. Thus, transfer of stem cells from peripheral blood, provided in an autologous setting, is associated with transfer and prolonged survival of CD8+ T cells with a more mature phenotype, which may provide a more rapid and efficient anti-viral immune response, as expected for memory versus naïve cells.

O citomegalovírus (CMV) é uma séria ameaça aos receptores de transplante de medula óssea. A reativação está associada com uma imunidade mediada por células TCD8+ defeituosa. Nosso objetivo foi correlacionar as diferentes subpopulações de células TCD8+ com a reconstituição imunológica dos pacientes, especificamente a imunidade anti-CMV, analisando as subpopulações de células T infundidas nas diferentes modalidades de transplante de medula óssea. Receptores de transplante alogênico de células tronco mobilizadas para o sangue periférico (n=16) ou coletadas diretamente da medula óssea (n=28) e receptores de transplante autólogo de células tronco mobilizadas para o sangue periférico (n=22) foram avaliados. Verificamos que as transferências de células mobilizadas para o sangue periférico dos doadores, tanto nos transplantes alogênicos como autólogos, são proporcionalmente enriquecidas por subpopulações de células memória efetora e efetora, comparadas às transferências de células procedentes diretamente da medula óssea. Este enriquecimento por subpopulações de células TCD8+ mais diferenciadas foi também correlacionado com maior número de células contendo altos níveis de granzima B, considerado um marcador para linfócitos citotóxicos, sendo também encontrado em maior número nas transferências de células do sangue periférico. Entretanto, no pós-transplante, observou-se que somente os receptores de transplante autólogo de células tronco mobilizadas para o sangue periférico, e não os das outras modalidades de transplante, exibiam números elevados de células T CD8+ de memória-efetora e efetora. Ao mesmo tempo, estes receptores apresentaram menos freqüentemente episódios de reativação pelo CMV, e mais freqüentemente produziram IFN-gama em resposta ao CMV. Portanto, a transferência de células do sangue periférico, desde que em ambiente autólogo, está associada não só com a transferência de células TCD8+ com um fenótipo mais maduro, mas também com uma persistência mais prolongada das mesmas, podendo proporcionar uma resposta imunológica antiviral mais rápida e eficiente, como esperado para as células de memória versus naïve. / Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a serious threat to the recipients of bone marrow transplantation. Reactivation is associated with defective CD8+ T cell-mediated immunity. We aimed to correlate the different subsets of CD8+ T cells with the patients\' immune reconstitution, specifically anti CMV immunity, by analyzing the CD8+ T cell subsets infused in the different types of bone marrow transplantation. Recipients of allogeneic transplant of peripheral blood stem cells (n=16) or bone marrow (n=28) and recipients of autologous transplant of peripheral blood stem cells (n=22) were evaluated. We show that infusions of stem cells derived from donor\'s peripheral blood, either allogeneic or autologous, are proportionally enriched for the memory-effector and effector phenotypes, compared to the infusions of stem cells of bone marrow origin. This increased number of more differentiated subsets of CD8+ T cells was also correlated with an increased number of cells containing high levels of granzyme B, which is another reliable marker of cytotoxic lymphocyte, and which was also more evident in autologous recipients. However, post-transplant, we observed that only the recipients of autologous peripheral blood cells, and not the recipients of the other transplant modalities, exhibited very high numbers of memory-effector and effector TCD8+ cells. At the same time, they less frequently presented CMV reactivation, and more frequently produced IFN-gama in response to CMV antigens. Thus, transfer of stem cells from peripheral blood, provided in an autologous setting, is associated with transfer and prolonged survival of CD8+ T cells with a more mature phenotype, which may provide a more rapid and efficient anti-viral immune response, as expected for memory versus naïve cells.

L’infection par le cytomégalovirus est le plus souvent asymptomatique chez les sujets immunocompétents mais entraine une morbidité et une mortalité importantes chez les patients immunocompromis et en cas d’infection congénitale.<p>Après l’infection primaire, le virus persiste tout au long de la vie à l’état latent mais peut se réactiver de manière intermittente. Ceci est associé à l’expansion de lymphocytes T CD4+ fortement différenciés ayant des fonctions auxiliaires et cytolytiques. L’infection primaire est, par contre, caractérisée par une réplication virale intense qui dure plusieurs mois. Il a été montré que l’exposition prolongée à des concentrations élevées d’antigènes entraine une perte progressive de fonction par les lymphocytes T appelée épuisement et caractérisée par l’expression de récepteurs inhibiteurs. L’impact de la réplication virale intense observée au cours de l’infection primaire par le CMV sur la fonction des lymphocytes T CD4+ n’est pas bien connu.<p>La fonctionnalité des lymphocytes T CD4+ a été explorée chez l’humain et le singe rhésus au cours de l’infection primaire et comparée à celle de sujets porteurs chroniques du virus.<p>Les résultats montrent que l’infection primaire par le CMV est associée à la détection de lymphocytes T CD4+ circulants ayant une faible capacité de prolifération et de production de cytokines et d’IL-2 en particulier.<p>L’impact de la différenciation sur la fonction des lymphocytes a été exploré en détail chez l’humain. Il a été observé qu’un degré de différenciation plus élevé des lymphocytes T CD4+ spécifiques du CMV joue un rôle dans la production réduite d’IL-2. Toutefois, la fraction moins différenciée (exprimant la molécule CD28) présente également une sécrétion d’IL-2 moindre au cours de l’infection primaire. Ceci fait partie d’une diminution globale de la production de cytokines au cours de l’infection primaire qui affecte également la sécrétion d’IFNγ et TNFα, entraine une polyfonctionnalité réduite et est indépendante de la différenciation. L’épuisement des lymphocytes T CD4+ spécifiques du CMV contribue à leur fonctionnalité moindre comme l’indique l’expression accrue du récepteur inhibiteur PD-1 et l’augmentation des réponses prolifératives en présence d’anticorps bloquant PD-1.<p>Le lien entre excrétion virale et fonction lymphocytaire a été étudié chez le macaque rhésus. L’infection par le CMV est observée chez les singes juvéniles et adultes mais pas chez les nourrissons. L’excrétion urinaire et salivaire est significativement plus fréquente et intense chez les singes juvéniles par rapport aux adultes. Comme chez l’humain au cours de l’infection primaire, les lymphocytes T CD4+ spécifiques du virus sont moins<p>polyfonctionnels et prolifèrent moins efficacement chez les singes juvéniles par rapport aux singes adultes. Ceci est associé à l’expression accrue du récepteur inhibiteur PD-1 chez les singes juvéniles. La réponse proliférative des lymphocytes T CD4+ est accrue en présence d’anticorps bloquant PD-1 ou d’IL-2 exogène. Enfin, une association inverse entre fonction lymphocytaire et excrétion urinaire a été mise en évidence chez les macaques adultes.<p>Ces résultats indiquent que l’infection par le CMV présente des caractéristiques semblables chez l’humain et le singe rhésus. L’infection primaire est associée à la détection de lymphocytes T CD4+ ayant une fonctionnalité moindre qu’au cours de l’infection chronique. L’expression du récepteur inhibiteur PD-1 typique des cellules épuisées est l’un des mécanismes impliqués et pourrait être la cible de stratégies immunomodulatrices visant à améliorer les fonctions lymphocytaires et le contrôle de la réplication virale. Les résultats présentés indiquent que l’infection naturelle chez le singe rhésus constitue un modèle potentiellement utile à l’étude de la réponse immune au CMV humain et à l’évaluation de stratégies immunomodulatrices.<p>/<p>Cytomegalovirus infection is mostly asymptomatic in immunocompetent hosts but leads to severe morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised subjects and foetuses.<p>After primary infection, CMV establishes lifelong persistence but can reactivate intermittently. This is associated with the expansion of highly differentiated CD4+ T lymphocytes exhibiting helper functions and cytolytic activity.<p>Primary infection is characterised by an intense viral replication lasting several months. It has been shown that prolonged exposure to elevated antigen concentrations induces a progressive loss of function by T lymphocytes called exhaustion. This state of functional impairment is associated to the expression of inhibitory receptors. The consequence of the intense viral replication seen in primary CMV infection on CD4+ T cell function is unknown.<p>CD4+ T cell function has been studied in human and rhesus macaque during primary CMV infection. Chronic CMV carriers have been used as controls.<p>The results show that primary CMV infection is associated to the detection of circulating CD4+ T lymphocytes exhibiting weak proliferative capacities and reduced cytokine production affecting IL-2 in particular.<p>The impact of differentiation on lymphocyte function has been explored in detail in human. An increased proportion of terminally differentiated CD4+ T cells (CD28-) is observed during primary infection. These lymphocytes are unable to secrete IL-2 in response to CMV antigens. Interestingly, CD28+ CMV-specific CD4+ T cells also exhibit reduced IL-2 production during primary infection. This is part of a global reduction of cytokine production affecting IFNγ and TNFα as well. The impaired cytokine production is associated to reduced polyfunctionality and is independent of differentiation. Exhaustion of CMV-specific CD4+ T lymphocytes contributes to the reduced functionality as shown by an increased expression of the inhibitory receptor PD-1 and improved proliferative responses in the presence of PD-1 blocking antibodies.<p>The relationship between viral replication and lymphocyte function has been explored in rhesus macaques. CMV infection is observed in juvenile and adult monkeys but not in newborns. Excretion in urine and saliva is significantly more frequent and intense in juvenile monkeys than adults. As in primary infection in human, CMV-specific CD4+ T lymphocytes are less polyfunctional and have lower proliferative capacities in juveniles as compared to adults. This is associated with an increased expression of PD-1 in juvenile monkeys. CD4+ T cell proliferative responses are increased when PD-1 blocking antibodies or exogenous IL-2 are added to the culture medium. Finally, an inverse association between lymphocyte function and urinary excretion has been observed in adult macaques.<p>These results indicate that CMV infection shares common features in human and rhesus macaque. Primary infection is associated to the detection of CD4+ T lymphocyte displaying lower functional capacities as compared to chronic infection. Exhaustion contributes to the functional impairment and the inhibitory receptor PD-1 could be targeted by immunomodulatory strategies aiming at improving lymphocyte functions and controlling viral replication. Natural CMV infection in rhesus macaque might be useful as a model to evaluate the efficacy and safety of immunomodulatory approaches. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Les nouveau-nés et les jeunes enfants ont une susceptibilité plus élevée aux infections par rapport aux enfants plus âgés et aux adultes. Cette caractéristique est en partie attribuée à l’immaturité de leur système immunitaire qui est associée à une capacité limitée à développer des réponses immunitaires à médiation cellulaire. L’infection par le cytomégalovirus (HCMV) est la cause la plus fréquente d’infection congénitale chez l’Homme et une cause majeure de surdité et de retard mental. En Belgique, le dépistage anténatal de l’infection primaire par le HCMV chez les femmes enceintes offre l’opportunité d’étudier les réponses immunitaires du foetus à ce virus et de les comparer à celles de leur maman.<p>Les lymphocytes T CD4+ Th1 et les lymphocytes T CD8+ cytotoxiques jouent un rôle crucial dans le contrôle des pathogènes intracellulaires dont le HCMV fait partie. La littérature montre une capacité limitée des enfants congénitalement infectés par le HCMV à développer des réponses T CD4+ spécifiques du HCMV. En contraste, des réponses de lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifiques du HCMV ont été rapportées chez des enfants infectés in utero, mais ces réponses n’ont pas été comparées en détails à celles de l’adulte. De plus, notre connaissance des réponses T spécifiques du HCMV durant l’infection primaire par ce virus est limitée. Des études antérieures ont rapporté un défaut de prolifération et de production d’IL-2 des lymphocytes T spécifiques du HCMV chez des adultes avec durant la phase primaire de l’infection, mais les mécanismes restent non-élucidés.<p>Nous avons caractérisé les réponses de lymphocytes T CD4+ et CD8+ spécifiques du HCMV provenant du sang de cordon de nouveau-nés congénitalement infectés par le HCMV, et nous avons comparé ces réponses à celles de leurs mamans diagnostiquées avec une infection primaire par le HCMV durant la grossesse. En plus, nous avons comparé les réponses T CD4+ et CD8+ de ces mamans à celles d’adultes infectés chroniquement par le virus. Chez les nouveau-nés, nous avons démontré que des lymphocytes T CD4+ de sang de cordon exprimant un phénotype de différentiation spécifique du HCMV (CD27-CD28-) ainsi qu’un phénotype Th1 similaire à celui des cellules maternelles étaient induits in utero lors de l’infection congénitale par le HCMV. De plus, la détection d’expansions oligoclonales suggérait fortement une expansion antigène-spécifique de ces cellules. Cependant, les T CD4+ de nouveau-nés présentaient une capacité fortement réduite à produire des cytokines anti-virales (IFN-γ, TNF-α et MIP-1β) en réponse à une stimulation ex vivo avec les antigènes du HCMV, par rapport aux cellules maternelles. Les lymphocytes T (CD27-CD28-) CD4+ de nouveau-nés produisaient également des niveaux plus bas de cytokines antivirales en réponse à des stimulations polyclonales avec l’anti-CD3 et la PMA/ionomycine, suggérant des altérations en amont et en aval de la voie de signalisation du TCR. Nos résultats suggèrent que ces altérations pourraient impliquer la diminution de l’expression de molécules impliquées dans cette voie de signalisation. De la même manière, nous<p>avons montré que chez le nouveau-né, la fonction des T CD8+ spécifiques du HCMV était altérée par rapport à celle de l’adulte. Nous avons observé des proportions similaires de T CD8+ (CD27-CD28-) chez les nouveau-nés et les adultes. De plus, l’analyse du répertoire du TCR Vβ de ces cellules par séquençage haut-débit a révélé une capacité similaire à générer un répertoire T diversifié dans les deux groupes. Comme rapporté précédemment, nous avons détecté des fréquences similaires de lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifiques pour l’antigène immunodominant pp65. Cependant, lorsque les stimulations ont été étendues à d’autres antigènes du HCMV, nous avons observé que le répertoire antigénique reconnu par ces cellules était significativement réduit chez les nouveau-nés, en association avec une diminution de la polyfonctionalité et de la production de cytokines par cellule.<p>Nous avons également montré que, dans une moindre mesure, la fonction des lymphocytes T spécifiques du HCMV était diminuée durant l’infection primaire chez l’adulte. Comme reporté précédemment, les T CD4+ spécifiques du HCMV proliféraient moins et produisaient moins d’IL-2 par rapport à des individus dans la phase chronique de l’infection. Ce défaut de production d’IL-2 affectait à la fois les populations de cellules CD28+ et CD28-, montrant que l’accumulation de lymphocytes T CD4+ ayant perdu l’expression de la molécule CD28 (un signal de co-stimulation important pour la production d’IL-2) est seulement un des facteurs contribuant à la diminution de la production d’IL-2 par les cellules spécifiques du HCMV. En accord avec cette observation, nous avons montré une diminution de la production par cellule d’IFN-γ et de TNF-α touchant également à la fois les populations de T CD4+ CD28+ et CD28- durant la phase primaire de l’infection, un défaut associé avec une avidité fonctionnelle diminuée de ces cellules. De la même manière, la polyfonctionalité et la production de cytokines par cellule des lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifiques du HCMV étaient également diminuées chez les adultes durant la phase d’infection primaire.<p>En résumé, nos résultats montrent que la fonction des lymphocytes T spécifiques du HCMV de nouveau-nés et d’adultes est altérée durant l’infection primaire par rapport à des individus infectés chroniquement par le virus. Nous montrons que cette régulation fonctionnelle ressemble à l’exhaustion fonctionnelle des lymphocytes T observée durant les infections virales chroniques associées à des charges virales élevées. L’infection primaire par le HCMV est caractérisée par une réplication virale intense qui dure pendant plusieurs mois suivant l’infection. Nous émettons l’hypothèse que les hauts taux de réplication virale observés durant l’infection congénitale et chez l’adulte durant l’infection primaire par le HCMV pourraient interférer avec certaines fonctions des lymphocytes T./Neonates and young infants have a higher susceptibility to infections compared to older infants or adults. This feature is in part attributed to the immaturity of their immune system associated with a limited capacity to mount cellular-mediated immune responses. Congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is the most common cause of congenital infection worldwide and a major cause of hearing loss and mental retardation. In Belgium, antenatal screening of pregnant women for primary HCMV infection offers an opportunity to study neonatal immune responses to the virus and to compare them to those of their mother.<p>T lymphocytes are major players of the immune system. In particular, Th1 CD4+ T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells play a crucial role in the control of intracellular pathogens, including HCMV infection. Previous literature has reported a limited capacity of infants born with congenital HCMV infection to mount HCMV-specific CD4+ T cell responses. In contrast, fetal antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses have been reported following in utero HCMV infection, but these responses have not been compared in detail to those of adults with primary infection. In addition, our knowledge regarding adult HCMV-specific T cell responses during primary HCMV infection is limited. Previous studies have reported defective T cell proliferation and IL-2 production in adults with primary HCMV infection, showing that some of the T cell functions are altered during primary infection.<p>In this study, we have characterized neonatal HCMV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses from the cord blood of newborns with congenital HCMV infection, and we have compared these responses to that of their mothers diagnosed with primary HCMV infection during pregnancy. Also, we compared CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses of adults with primary HCMV infection to that of adults with chronic infection.<p>In newborns, it was not known if the defective CD4+ T cell responses could be attributed to the absence of HCMV-specific cells or to the induction of dysfunctional cells. We demonstrate that neonatal CD4+ T cells with a differentiation phenotype typical of HCMV infection (CD27-CD28-) and expressing a Th1 phenotype similar to that of maternal cells can differentiate in utero following HCMV infection. In addition, the detection of oligoclonal expansions by spectratyping and flow cytometry analyses strongly suggests antigen-specific responses. However, neonatal CD4+ T cells were markedly less able to produce antiviral cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α and MIP-1β) following ex vivo stimulation with HCMV antigens, compared to maternal cells. Also, neonatal CD27-CD28- CD4+ T cells produce lower levels of antiviral cytokines in response to polyclonal stimulations with anti-CD3 and PMA/ionomycin, suggesting alterations up-stream and down-stream of the TCR signaling pathway. Our results suggest that these alterations could involve the down-regulation of the expression of molecules that are part of the TCR signaling pathway. Similarly, we show that the function of<p>neonatal HCMV-specific CD8+ T cells is impaired compared to adults. Similar proportions of (CD27-CD28-) CD8+ T cells, typical of HCMV infection, were detected in newborns and adults. Analysis of the TCR Vβ repertoire of neonatal and maternal (CD27-CD28-) CD8+ T cells by high-throughput sequencing revealed a similar capacity to generate a diverse clonal repertoire. As previously reported, we detected similar frequencies of HCMV-specific CD8+ T cells specific for the immunodominant viral antigen pp65. However, when extending ex vivo stimulations to other HCMV antigens, we observed that the antigenic repertoire recognized by these cells was significantly reduced in newborns. In addition, neonatal CD8+ T cells had a reduced polyfunctionality and per cell cytokine production.<p>To a lower extent, the function of adult HCMV-specific T cells was also impaired during primary infection. As previously reported, maternal HCMV-specific CD4+ T cells were markedly less able to produce IL-2 and to proliferate compared to individuals in the chronic stage of the disease. Both CD28+ and CD28- T cell subsets produced decreased levels of IL-2. This observation shows that the accumulation of HCMV-specific CD4+ T cells having lost the expression of the CD28 molecule (an important co-stimulatory signal for IL-2 production) during primary infection is only one of the factors contributing to the decreased IL-2 production. Accordingly, both CD28+ and CD28- CD4+ T cell subsets had a decreased per cell production of IFN-γ and TNF-α during primary HCMV infection. This defect was associated with a lower functional avidity of these cells. Similarly, the polyfunctionality and per cell cytokine production of adult HCMV-specific CD8+ T cells was also impaired compared to adults with chronic infection.<p>Altogether, our results show that adult and neonatal HCMV-specific T cell responses are impaired during primary infection, compared to individuals with chronic infection. We show that this functional regulation resembles that of functional T cell exhaustion observed during chronic viral infections that are associated with high levels of viral replication. Primary HCMV infection is characterized by an intense viral replication lasting for several months post-infection. We hypothesize that the high levels of viral replication observed during congenital and adult primary HCMV infection could interfere with some of the T cell functions. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished