Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2001. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 199 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 176-195).

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2008. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 174 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 164-174).

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2003. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 42 p. : ill. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 35-42).

Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by various forms of the Plasmodium parasite. It is responsible for thousands of deaths yearly with 90 % of those deaths being in sub-Saharan Africa, thus making it a disease of global importance. The global burden of malaria is worsened by resistance to current treatment, a lack in funding and limited research outputs. More alternative ways of treatment must be explored and may include the co-formulation of antimalarial drug substances as well as alternative ways of drug delivery. Antifolates are drugs which interfere with an organism’s folate metabolism by inhibiting dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) or dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). Dapsone is a synthetic sulfone which has a mechanism of action that is very similar to that of sulphonamides. The mechanism of action is characterised by the inhibition of folic acid synthesis through the inhibition of dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS). Another antifolate drug, proguanil, is the prodrug of cycloguanil. Its mechanism involves the inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), thus inhibiting the malaria parasite to metabolise folates and therefore stunting its growth. Unfortunately, dapsone has a serious side-effect in people with a deficiency of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) causing oxidative stress on the red blood cells leading to the rupturing of these cells. The main objective of this study was to formulate and characterise TMC-TPP microparticles loaded with the effective but toxic drug combination of dapsone and proguanil and to determine if these drug-containing microparticles had in vivo efficacy against malaria. N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC), a partially quaternised chitosan derivative, shows good water solubility across a wide pH range thus having mucoadhesive properties and excellent absorption enhancing effects even at neutral pH. A faster, more efficient microwave irradiation method was developed as an alternative to the conventional synthesising method of TMC. TMC with the same degree of quaternisation (DQ), ± 60 %, was obtained in a quarter of the reaction time (30 min) by using the newly developed method. The TMC synthesised with the microwave irradiation method also exhibited less degradation of the polymer structure, thus limiting the chance for the formation of any unwanted by-products (Omethylation, N,N-dimethylation and N-monomethylation). The formation of complexes by ionotropic gelation between TMC and oppositely charged macromolecules, such as tripolyphosphate (TPP), has been utilised to prepare microparticles which are a suitable drug delivery system for the dapsone-proguanil combination. Both these drugs were successfully entrapped. These particles were characterised and the in vivo efficacy against the malaria parasites was determined. The microparticles with both the drugs, separately and in combination, displayed similar or better in vivo efficacy when compared to the drugs without the TMC microparticles. An in vitro dissolution study was also performed by subjecting the dapsone and proguanil TMC formulations to 0.1N HCl dissolution medium. Samples were withdrawn after predetermined time points and the drug concentration was determined with HPLC. It was found that the TMC microparticles resulted in a sustained release profile since only 73.00 ± 1.70 % (dapsone) and 55.00 ± 1.90 % (proguanil) was released after 150 minutes. The in vivo bioavailability of the dapsone and proguanil TMC formulations was evaluated in mice by collecting blood samples at predetermined time points and analysing the samples with a sensitive and accurate LC-MS/MS method. The in vivo bioavailability of the dapsone TMC formulation relative to the normal dapsone formulation was found to be 244 % and 123 % for the proguanil TMC formulation relative to the normal proguanil formulation. These TMC-TPP microparticles formulations showed better in vivo efficacy and bioavailability when compared to the normal formulation. Together with the sustained release, these formulations may be a promising cheaper and more effective treatment against malaria. / PhD (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by various forms of the Plasmodium parasite. It is responsible for thousands of deaths yearly with 90 % of those deaths being in sub-Saharan Africa, thus making it a disease of global importance. The global burden of malaria is worsened by resistance to current treatment, a lack in funding and limited research outputs. More alternative ways of treatment must be explored and may include the co-formulation of antimalarial drug substances as well as alternative ways of drug delivery. Antifolates are drugs which interfere with an organism’s folate metabolism by inhibiting dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) or dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). Dapsone is a synthetic sulfone which has a mechanism of action that is very similar to that of sulphonamides. The mechanism of action is characterised by the inhibition of folic acid synthesis through the inhibition of dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS). Another antifolate drug, proguanil, is the prodrug of cycloguanil. Its mechanism involves the inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), thus inhibiting the malaria parasite to metabolise folates and therefore stunting its growth. Unfortunately, dapsone has a serious side-effect in people with a deficiency of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) causing oxidative stress on the red blood cells leading to the rupturing of these cells. The main objective of this study was to formulate and characterise TMC-TPP microparticles loaded with the effective but toxic drug combination of dapsone and proguanil and to determine if these drug-containing microparticles had in vivo efficacy against malaria. N-trimethyl chitosan chloride (TMC), a partially quaternised chitosan derivative, shows good water solubility across a wide pH range thus having mucoadhesive properties and excellent absorption enhancing effects even at neutral pH. A faster, more efficient microwave irradiation method was developed as an alternative to the conventional synthesising method of TMC. TMC with the same degree of quaternisation (DQ), ± 60 %, was obtained in a quarter of the reaction time (30 min) by using the newly developed method. The TMC synthesised with the microwave irradiation method also exhibited less degradation of the polymer structure, thus limiting the chance for the formation of any unwanted by-products (Omethylation, N,N-dimethylation and N-monomethylation). The formation of complexes by ionotropic gelation between TMC and oppositely charged macromolecules, such as tripolyphosphate (TPP), has been utilised to prepare microparticles which are a suitable drug delivery system for the dapsone-proguanil combination. Both these drugs were successfully entrapped. These particles were characterised and the in vivo efficacy against the malaria parasites was determined. The microparticles with both the drugs, separately and in combination, displayed similar or better in vivo efficacy when compared to the drugs without the TMC microparticles. An in vitro dissolution study was also performed by subjecting the dapsone and proguanil TMC formulations to 0.1N HCl dissolution medium. Samples were withdrawn after predetermined time points and the drug concentration was determined with HPLC. It was found that the TMC microparticles resulted in a sustained release profile since only 73.00 ± 1.70 % (dapsone) and 55.00 ± 1.90 % (proguanil) was released after 150 minutes. The in vivo bioavailability of the dapsone and proguanil TMC formulations was evaluated in mice by collecting blood samples at predetermined time points and analysing the samples with a sensitive and accurate LC-MS/MS method. The in vivo bioavailability of the dapsone TMC formulation relative to the normal dapsone formulation was found to be 244 % and 123 % for the proguanil TMC formulation relative to the normal proguanil formulation. These TMC-TPP microparticles formulations showed better in vivo efficacy and bioavailability when compared to the normal formulation. Together with the sustained release, these formulations may be a promising cheaper and more effective treatment against malaria. / PhD (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-10T10:29:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Fritz Eduardo Kasbaum.pdf: 8675531 bytes, checksum: fd4de7b5752ef941286dcf268c9d38da (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-01-25 / The present work show the pharmaceutical development of new release systems of drugs, specifically dapsona's (DDS) prolonged release tablets, a sulfon with bacteriostatic action used on the leprosy treatment and several other skin diseases and also in the treatment of the other pathologies as malaria and pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis carinii. This drug, depending on the pathology, can be managed in doses trat vary between 25 to 300m/day, and the administration frequency added to the high doses is responsible for the sprouting of serious collateral effect in the hematologic system, amongst them the methemoglobinemia and in some cases hemolysis. Systems of modified release aim to optimize the medicines therapy by reduction of the usually managed doses, attainment of plasmatic levels more uniforms of the drug for bigger period of time in administrations frequency and also reduction of the observed collateral effect. Eight formulations of DDS were prepared using as excipients the microcrystalline cellulose, the monohydrated lactose spray dryer and magnesium stearate. To compose a matricial system of asset release it was formulated tablets sometimes contending matrix with hydrophilic characteristic and sometimes lipofilic, respectively, hidroxipropilmetilcelulose (HPMC) and gliceril monostearate (MEG). The prepared formulations were submitted to dissolution tests in medium that simulated the stomachal and enteric conditions and the respective profiles or release were evaluated the Kinetic of DDS release to elucidate the mechanisms that controls it. The results of release throughout the time had been treated in accordance with model zero-order, first-order, Higuchi and exponential model. The gotten coefficients of correlation indicate that DDS release from the chosen formulation follows exponential model. / O presente trabalho tem como objetivo o desenvolvimento farmacotécnico de novos sistemas de veiculação de fármacos, especificamente comprimidos de liberação prolongada de dapsona (DDS), uma sulfona com ação bacteriostática utilizada no tratamento da hanseníase e diversas afecções da pele e também no tratamento de outras patologias como a malária a pneumonia causada por Pneumocystis carinii. Esse fármaco, dependendo da patologia, poder ser administrado em doses que variam de 25 a 300mg/dia, e a frequencia de administração somada às altas doses são responsáveis pelo surgimento de efeitos colaterais graves no sistema hematológico, dentre eles a metemoglobinemia e em alguns casos hemólise. Sistemas de liberação modificada visam a otimização da terapia medicamentosa por redução das doses usualmente administradas e obtenção de níveis plasmáticos mais uniformes do fármaco por maior período de tempo em relação às formas de liberação imediata. Isso geralmente promove a redução na frequência de administração e também redução dos efeitos colaterais observados. Foram preparados oito formulações de DDS utilizando-se como excipientes a celulose microcristalina, a lactose monohidratada spray dryer e estearato de magnésio. Para compor o sistema matricial de liberação do fármaco, formularam-se comprimidos ora contendo matriz com caractéristica hidrofílica, ora lipofílica, respectivamente, hidroxipropilmetilcelulose (HPMC) e monoesterato de glicerila (MEG). As formulações preparadas foram submetidas a ensaios de dissolução em meios que simulavam as condições estomacal e entérica e os respectivos perfis de liberação avaliados por meio de análise de vâriancia (ANOVA). Para a formulação de escolha também avaliou-se a cinética de liberação da DDS de forma a elucidar os mecanismos que a controlam. Os resultados de liberação ao longo do tempo foram tratados de acordo com modelo cinéticos zero-ordem, primeira ordem, Higuchi e modelo exponencial. Os coeficientes de correlação obtidos indicam que a liberação da DDS a partir da formulação escolhida é governada modelo exponencial.

A acne vulgaris é uma patologia cutânea crônica que acomete a unidade pilossebácea resultando em hiperqueratinização, aumento da produção de sebo, inflamação e proliferação bacteriana nos folículos pilosos. Diversos fármacos estão disponíveis para o tratamento da acne, entretanto a combinação de tratamentos tópicos, com diferentes mecanismos de ação, apresentam uma melhor eficácia. Desse modo, o presente trabalho visa o desenvolvimento de um sistema nanocarreador contendo adapaleno e dapsona no intuito de promover melhor seletividade, aumentando a eficiência do tratamento e minimizando efeitos adversos. Neste contexto, desenvolveu-se e caracterizou-se físico-quimicamente uma formulação de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico contendo adapaleno e dapsona. A suspensão contendo 0,025 % de adapaleno e 0,07 % de dapsona apresentou diâmetro médio de 194,9 ± 0,42 nm, índice de polidispersão de 0,12 ± 0,02, potencial zeta -15 ± 1,2 mV, pH 5,1 ± 0,1 e eficiência de encapsulação próximos a 100 %. A avaliação da morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão demonstrou partículas esféricas, homogêneas de dimensões nanométricas. Através da análise de retroespalhamento de luz dinâmico (Turbiscan®) não se detectou fenômenos de instabilidade na formulação. Uma nanoemulsão, similarmente preparada, mas sem o uso do polímero, foi desenvolvida para comparação a fim de estabelecer o mecanismo de encapsulação dos fármacos. As suspensões foram incorporadas em veículos semissólidos, hidrogéis de Carpobol® 940, e os seguintes estudos foram realizados: comportamento reológico, pH, perfil de liberação, potencial de irritação (HET-CAM) e permeação cutânea in vitro. A determinação quantitativa dos ativos foi realizada por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), e os métodos analíticos foram desenvolvidos e validados de acordo com os códigos oficiais vigentes. As formulações apresentaram perfil não-Newtoniano pseudoplástico. No estudo de liberação in vitro, não houve diferença significativa entre as formulações contendo dapsona (p>0,05). Já para o adapaleno, não foi possível estabelecer o perfil de liberação in vitro por membrana de diálise. As formulações foram avaliadas como não irritantes pela técnica de HET-CAM. Através dos estudos de permeação cutânea foi possível quantificar os fármacos na epiderme e na derme, e quantidade não-significativa foi detectada no fluído receptor (p>0,05). Comparando as formulações de nanocápsula de núcleo lipídico e nanoemulsão, as quantidades de adapaleno e dapsona em cada camada da pele foi significativamente diferente (p<0,05). Em conclusão, os resultados obtidos até o presente momento demonstram que as nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico são um sistema promissor para aplicação cutânea de adapaleno e dapsona. Contudo, estudos clínicos fazem-se necessários a fim de avaliar a efetividade da formulação no tratamento da acne. / Acne vulgaris is a chronic skin condition that affects the pilosebaceous unit resulting in hyperkeratinization, increased sebum production, inflammation and bacterial proliferation in hair follicles. Several drugs are available for treating acne, however the combination of topical treatments with different mechanisms of action presents greater effectiveness. Therefore, this study aims to develop a nanocarrier system containing adapalene and dapsone in order to promote better selectivity, increasing efficiency of treatment and minimizing adverse side effects. In this study, a suspension of lipid-core nanocapsules containing adapalene and dapsone was prepared by interfacial deposition of preformed polymer and characterized physicochemically. The suspension containing 0.025 % of adapalene and 0.07 % of dapsone showed an average diameter of 194.9 ± 0.42 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.12 ± 0.02, zeta potential -15 mV ± 1.2, pH 5.1 ± 0.1 and encapsulation efficiency approaching 100 %. The assessment of morphology by transmission electron microscopy showed spherical particles of homogeneous nanometric dimensions. No detectable instability phenomena in the formulation was observed by dynamic light scattering analysis (Turbiscan®). A nanoemulsion, similarly prepared but omitting the polymer, was developed to establish the mechanism of drug encapsulation. The suspensions were incorporated into semisolid vehicles, hydrogels of Carpobol® 940, and the following studies were performed: rheological behavior, pH, release profile, irritation potential (HET-CAM) and skin permeation in vitro. Drug quantification was carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analytical methods were developed and validated according to current official guidelines. The formulations exhibited non-Newtonian pseudoplastic profile. In the in vitro release study, no significant difference was found between the formulations containing dapsone (p>0.05). However, for adapalene, it was not possible to establish the in vitro release profile by dialysis membrane. The formulations were evaluated as non-irritant by HET-CAM technique. Through the skin permeation studies, it was possible to quantify the drug in epidermis and dermis, and non-significant quantity was detected in the receptor fluid (p>0.05). Comparing the lipid-core nanocapsules and nanoemulsion formulations, the amount of adapalene and dapsone in each skin layer was significantly different (p<0.05). In conclusion, the results obtained show that the lipid-core nanocapsules are a promising system for cutaneous application of adapalene and dapsone. However, clinical studies are required in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the formulation in the treatment of acne.

A acne vulgaris é uma patologia cutânea crônica que acomete a unidade pilossebácea resultando em hiperqueratinização, aumento da produção de sebo, inflamação e proliferação bacteriana nos folículos pilosos. Diversos fármacos estão disponíveis para o tratamento da acne, entretanto a combinação de tratamentos tópicos, com diferentes mecanismos de ação, apresentam uma melhor eficácia. Desse modo, o presente trabalho visa o desenvolvimento de um sistema nanocarreador contendo adapaleno e dapsona no intuito de promover melhor seletividade, aumentando a eficiência do tratamento e minimizando efeitos adversos. Neste contexto, desenvolveu-se e caracterizou-se físico-quimicamente uma formulação de nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico contendo adapaleno e dapsona. A suspensão contendo 0,025 % de adapaleno e 0,07 % de dapsona apresentou diâmetro médio de 194,9 ± 0,42 nm, índice de polidispersão de 0,12 ± 0,02, potencial zeta -15 ± 1,2 mV, pH 5,1 ± 0,1 e eficiência de encapsulação próximos a 100 %. A avaliação da morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão demonstrou partículas esféricas, homogêneas de dimensões nanométricas. Através da análise de retroespalhamento de luz dinâmico (Turbiscan®) não se detectou fenômenos de instabilidade na formulação. Uma nanoemulsão, similarmente preparada, mas sem o uso do polímero, foi desenvolvida para comparação a fim de estabelecer o mecanismo de encapsulação dos fármacos. As suspensões foram incorporadas em veículos semissólidos, hidrogéis de Carpobol® 940, e os seguintes estudos foram realizados: comportamento reológico, pH, perfil de liberação, potencial de irritação (HET-CAM) e permeação cutânea in vitro. A determinação quantitativa dos ativos foi realizada por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), e os métodos analíticos foram desenvolvidos e validados de acordo com os códigos oficiais vigentes. As formulações apresentaram perfil não-Newtoniano pseudoplástico. No estudo de liberação in vitro, não houve diferença significativa entre as formulações contendo dapsona (p>0,05). Já para o adapaleno, não foi possível estabelecer o perfil de liberação in vitro por membrana de diálise. As formulações foram avaliadas como não irritantes pela técnica de HET-CAM. Através dos estudos de permeação cutânea foi possível quantificar os fármacos na epiderme e na derme, e quantidade não-significativa foi detectada no fluído receptor (p>0,05). Comparando as formulações de nanocápsula de núcleo lipídico e nanoemulsão, as quantidades de adapaleno e dapsona em cada camada da pele foi significativamente diferente (p<0,05). Em conclusão, os resultados obtidos até o presente momento demonstram que as nanocápsulas de núcleo lipídico são um sistema promissor para aplicação cutânea de adapaleno e dapsona. Contudo, estudos clínicos fazem-se necessários a fim de avaliar a efetividade da formulação no tratamento da acne. / Acne vulgaris is a chronic skin condition that affects the pilosebaceous unit resulting in hyperkeratinization, increased sebum production, inflammation and bacterial proliferation in hair follicles. Several drugs are available for treating acne, however the combination of topical treatments with different mechanisms of action presents greater effectiveness. Therefore, this study aims to develop a nanocarrier system containing adapalene and dapsone in order to promote better selectivity, increasing efficiency of treatment and minimizing adverse side effects. In this study, a suspension of lipid-core nanocapsules containing adapalene and dapsone was prepared by interfacial deposition of preformed polymer and characterized physicochemically. The suspension containing 0.025 % of adapalene and 0.07 % of dapsone showed an average diameter of 194.9 ± 0.42 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.12 ± 0.02, zeta potential -15 mV ± 1.2, pH 5.1 ± 0.1 and encapsulation efficiency approaching 100 %. The assessment of morphology by transmission electron microscopy showed spherical particles of homogeneous nanometric dimensions. No detectable instability phenomena in the formulation was observed by dynamic light scattering analysis (Turbiscan®). A nanoemulsion, similarly prepared but omitting the polymer, was developed to establish the mechanism of drug encapsulation. The suspensions were incorporated into semisolid vehicles, hydrogels of Carpobol® 940, and the following studies were performed: rheological behavior, pH, release profile, irritation potential (HET-CAM) and skin permeation in vitro. Drug quantification was carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analytical methods were developed and validated according to current official guidelines. The formulations exhibited non-Newtonian pseudoplastic profile. In the in vitro release study, no significant difference was found between the formulations containing dapsone (p>0.05). However, for adapalene, it was not possible to establish the in vitro release profile by dialysis membrane. The formulations were evaluated as non-irritant by HET-CAM technique. Through the skin permeation studies, it was possible to quantify the drug in epidermis and dermis, and non-significant quantity was detected in the receptor fluid (p>0.05). Comparing the lipid-core nanocapsules and nanoemulsion formulations, the amount of adapalene and dapsone in each skin layer was significantly different (p<0.05). In conclusion, the results obtained show that the lipid-core nanocapsules are a promising system for cutaneous application of adapalene and dapsone. However, clinical studies are required in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the formulation in the treatment of acne.