In the post smallpox era, vaccinia virus (VACV) has emerged as an important candidate vaccine vector. As yet, the binding receptors and entry mechanisms utilised by the two infectious forms, IMV and EEV, in dendritic cells (DCs) are unknown. We have investigated the interactions between VACV and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) that are known to be utilised by many other viruses for binding and entry in DCs. Using a variety of CLR ligands and inhibitors we were unable to inhibit IMV or EEV binding to MDDCs and we conclude that they do not bind to CLRs. We have also investigated VACV entry in MDDCs and show that both IMV and EEV enter MDDCs via an endocytic pathway. Using a variety of drugs that inhibit cellular processes we found IMV and EEV entry to be actin- and calcium-dependent. EEV entry was also cholesterol- and energy-dependent, whereas IMV entry was only partially dependent on these factors. Both IMV and EEV colocalised with endolysosomal markers. This data suggests that EEV may enter DCs via caveolin-mediated endocytosis whereas IMV entry can occur via multiple complementary mechanisms, including endocytosis and fusion. Macropinocytosis may also constitute a minor route of entry for IMV as entry was partially inhibited by dimethyl amiloride and the virus colocalised with dextran. Finally we have provided a comprehensive flow cytometric analysis of Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression at the protein level in MDDCs and monocyte-derived Langerhans cells (MDLCs) as models for different myeloid DC subsets. We found TLR expression to be cell type-specific and MDDCs expressed the full repertoire of TLRs 1-9, including small amounts of TLR8 and TLR9 on the cell surface. The expression of these TLRs that recognise nucleic acids on the surface of cells may constitute an early warning system for signalling the presence of viral invaders that would normally subvert the function of DCs. We also found TLR expression in mature cells to be dependent on the nature of the maturation stimulus (lipopolysaccharide versus cytokine/prostaglandin cocktail) and VACV infection induced profound down-regulation of all TLRs. These findings will have important implications for the rational design of VACV-vectored vaccines.

Chapter 1 includes a review on dendrimers, their synthesis and applications, with a particular focus on urea-linked dendritic species. The synthetic strategy utilised in this body of work was based on the preparation of a number of branched synthetic building blocks possessing differing terminal functionality. These branched dendrons, bearing three terminal residues and based on the cheap starting material tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (TRIS) 23, involved the coupling of 3.3 equivalents of an appropriately para-substituted benzoic acid chloride with BOC protected TRIS 24 in DCM in the presence of triethylamine. The p-nitro, p-methoxy and p-methyl benzoyl chloride starting materials were obtained commercially, whilst N-(4-carboxyphenyl)maleimide was synthesised according to literature procedures. The BOC protected dendrons (25–27, 34) were synthesized in yields ranging from 50–92%. Deprotection of the BOC protected dendrons 25 and 26 in DCM with TFA, followed by the addition of 1M Na2CO3 afforded the TFA salts 35 and 36, respectively. The corresponding free base amines 37 and 38 were obtained on further treatment of the TFA salts with sodium carbonate. Deprotection of the BOC protected dendrons 27 and 34 afforded the free amines 39 and 48 directly after treatment with sodium carbonate. Synthesis of functionalised branched molecules containing 6- and 9-peripheral functionalities was achieved by refluxing 2 or 3 equivalents of the free amine dendrons with the bi- or tri- functional isocyanate cores, 15 and 45, in refluxing DCM, in most cases the products precipitated from the reaction mixture after 18 h and were isolated simply by filtration, otherwise the removal of the solvent from the reaction mixture afforded the spectroscopically pure product. Conversion of the peripheral nitro functionalised species 14 and 21 to the corresponding amines occurred smoothly via hydrogenation using 5% Pd/C under elevated temperature and pressure (DMF, 55 ºC, 600 psi) and afforded the polyamine 6-mer 51 in 92% yield and the 9-mer 50 in 90% yield, respectively. Similarly, conversion of the methoxy coated 9-mer 42, to the corresponding phenolic compound (AlBr3, dodecane thiol, DCM) afforded the 9-mer polyphenol 52 in an 87% yield. All compounds prepared were fully characterised and crystal structures were obtained for 26 and 35. Chapter 2 includes a review on self-assembled monolayers of organosulfur compounds on gold, applications, patterning techniques and techniques for the characterisation of these surfaces. A number of surface monomers were successfully synthesized, to be used for various surface functionalisations, including the formation of an amine reactive N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) disulfide 53, via the DCC coupling of 11,11’-dithiobisundecanoic acid 54 with N-hydroxysuccinimide with an isolated yield of 30%. A novel protein-resistant monomer 58 was also synthesized from 11-undecanoic acid 55 via an acid chloride coupling with triethylene glycol monomethyl ether 58, and isolated in a 72% yield. A number of attempts were made to produce an acyl azide SAM monomer 59, with success finally achieved via the acid chloride coupling of 11,11’-dithiobisundecanoic acid 54 with 5-amino-1,3-benzenedicarbonyl diazide 62 to produce 59 with an isolated yield of ~ 30%. Gold surfaces were prepared on atomically flat silicon wafers using an argon-ion sputterer. SAM films were formed on the gold surfaces via traditional solution based self-assembly methodology. A UV patterning protocol was developed, and a successful patterning trial using the NHS terminated monomer to backfill the UV exposed areas of a dodecane thiol monolayer was achieved and visualized using AFM and fluorescence microscopy after treating the surface with aminofluorescein. The covalent attachment of green fluorescent protein to the monolayer surface via reaction with the NHS terminated monolayer was demonstrated. The fluorescence of the biomolecule was preserved. The formation of a monolayer using the acyl azide monomer 59, was characterised by contact angle and XPS analysis. However, preliminary studies into the activation of the acyl azide surface into the reactive isocyanate were unsuccessful. There is however, significant scope for further investigations into this interesting surface technology. Chapter 3 includes a review on heterobifunctional linker technology with a particular focus on amine and thiol reactive moieties and literature examples of heterobifunctional linkers of this type. Synthesis of heterobifunctional reagents such as 71 and 74 via a two step synthetic methodology involving the coupling of maleic anhydride with the parent amino-acids in acetic acid, followed by a one pot cyclisation and NHS esterification using DCC in DMF were successful, with overall yields of 9% and 32% respectively for the two reaction steps. The one pot extension of 74 with 6-aminohexanoic acid, followed by DCC, facilitated NHS esterification was achieved successfully in a yield of 30%. Attempts to extend 74 with the synthesised amino acid 88 were unsuccessful due to the insolubility of 88 in organic solvents. A different synthetic strategy was devised towards the synthesis of 85 with the coupling of 74 and mono BOC protected ethylene diamine 91 in DCM to give 93 in an isolated yield of 60%. Deprotection of the terminal amine was achieved via reaction with TFA in DCM however all attempts to prepare the free amine were unsuccessful. Subsequent attempts to couple 94 with both succinic anhydride and 92 were unsuccessful. A maleimide functionalized crown ether was synthesised as a molecule for protein modification via the reaction of 74 with 4’-aminobenzo-15-crown-5 97 to produce 98 in an 80% yield. All compounds were fully characterised with crystal structures obtained for 74, 79 and 89.

Gene therapy has emerged as a field to modulate cell functions by introducing genes of interest to target cells. An emerging focus in this field is to employ non-viral vectors to deliver immunosuppressive cytokines to dendritic cells (DCs) to attenuate damaging immune responses. DCs serve as potential targets for suppression of T cell responses. In this work, we investigated the ability of polycation-modified polymeric particles complexed with interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene to modulate DCs. The delivery systems (designated as PSO10H6 and PLGAO10H6) were formed by coating cationic peptide O10H6 (O: ornithine; H: histidine) on the polystyrene (PS) and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) particulates. A mouse IL-10 encoding plasmid (pIL-10) was loaded on the surface of PSO10H6 and PLGAO10H6 via ionic interactions. Physical characterization of these particles revealed stable colloidal dispersions (diameters: 297.2±14nm in PLGAO10H6-pIL-10 and 126.0±8nm in PSO10H6-pIL-10). DNA molecules carried by PSO10H6 and PLGAO10H6 were protected from serum digestion. Results from in vitro gene transfection studies showed two-fold enhancement of IL-10 expression in bone marrow-derived DCs transfected with PSO10H6-pIL-10 and PLGAO10H6-pIL-10 compared to untransfected DCs. Their suppressive functions were evaluated in an in vitro mixed lymphocyte model. Results indicated that PSO10H6-pIL-10 and PLGAO10H6-pIL-10 modified DCs elicited weakest proliferation of allogeneic bulk T cells as well as CD4 and CD8 T cells among all the delivery modes. Using cell-embedded Matrigel as a surrogate graft, we showed that IL-10 gene-modified DCs suppressed host cell infiltration in vivo. These data suggested PSO10H6-pIL-10 and PLGAO10H6-pIL-10 deliver an overriding suppressive signal to T cells. Further studies revealed T cells stimulated by the IL-10 gene-modified DCs exhibited characteristics of regulatory T (Treg) cells, as evident by up-regulation of a Treg cell marker forkhead-type transcription factor 3 (Foxp3). This result was concomitant with an increase in of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) production. <br>Taken together, this work demonstrated that PSO10H6 and PLGAO10H6 are effective in delivering pIL-10 to modulate DCs to suppress T cell responses. Collectively, the results raise the prospects of using PSO10H6 and PLGAO10H6 as vectors to deliver immunosuppressive genes to modulate T cell responses in vivo. / Mylan School of Pharmacy and the Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences / Pharmaceutics / PhD / Dissertation

Cancer vaccines have shown little success in clinic. Dendritic cells (DCs) are of particular interest in cancer vaccination due to their role in cell-mediated immunity. Active targeting of DCs, through PLGA nanoparticles (PLGA-NPs) decorated with ligands for DC-expressed mannose receptor (MR) can enhance internalization, processing and presentation of antigens and subsequent immnuostimulation. In this study we have shown PLGA-NPs decorated with mannan and the synthetic hydrophobized mannan, especially those with covalent attachment, can target DCs leading to increased uptake of nanoparticles and DC maturation. This approach may be used for improved delivery of antigens and adjuvants to DCs and development of more efficient cancer vaccines. Moreover, significant progress in cancer vaccination requires immunomonitoring. Live imaging using a Positron Emission Tomography (PET) probe encapsulated in PLGA-NPs can elucidate dynamics of recruitment and fate of DCs to develop successful vaccines. The PET-nanoprobe prepared by radio-iodinated 5-IDFPdR demonstrated uncontrolled high burst release implying low quality images. / Pharmaceutical Sciences

Résumé Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional APCs that have a unique capacity to initiate primary immune responses, including tolerogenic responses. We have genetically engineered bone marrow-derived DCs to express the immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 and tested the ability of these cells to control experimental asthma. A single intratracheal injection of OVA-pulsed IL-10-transduced DCs (OVA-IL-10-DCs) to naive mice prior to OVA sensitization and challenge prevented all the cardinal features of airway allergy, namely eosinophilic airway inflammation, airway hyperreactivity, and production of mucus, Ag-specific Igs and IL-4. OVA-IL-10-DCs also reversed established experimental asthma and had long-lasting and Ag-specific effects. We furthermore showed, by using IL-10-deficient mice, that host IL-10 is required for mediating the immunomodulatory effects of OVA-IL-10-DCs and demonstrated a significant increase in the percentage of OVA-specific CD4+CD25+Foxp3+IL-10+ regulatory T cells in the mediastinal lymph nodes (MLNs) of OVA-IL-10-DC-injected mice. Finally, adoptive transfer of CD4+ MLN T cells from mice injected with OVA-IL-10-DCs protected OVA-sensitized recipients from airway eosinophilia upon OVA provocation. Our study describes a promising strategy to induce long-lasting Ag-specific tolerance in airway allergy./L’asthme atteint des proportions épidémiques dans les pays développés et a un impact négatif sur la qualité de vie. De plus les coûts des soins de santé relatifs à cette maladie ne cessent d’augmenter. La nette augmentation de l’incidence durant ces dernières décennies reste une énigme, les facteurs environnementaux ayant probablement contribués pour une large part dans ce processus. Bien que le traitement actuel de l’asthme avec des corticostéroïdes inhalés et des agonistes β2 à longue durée d’action est satisfaisant et sans danger, des inquiétudes restent sur les effets à long terme des corticostéroïdes, en particulier lorsqu’on voit que les traitements commencent parfois très tôt dans l’enfance. De plus, la thérapie actuelle ne semble pas inhiber le TGF-β ni les dépôts de collagène, importants dans le remodelage des voies aériennes qui, au final, contribue à augmenter l’HRB des voies respiratoires. La prévalence et la sévérité de l’asthme atopique augmentent de façon alarmante partout dans le monde depuis ces vingt dernières années {Eder, 2006 #2}. Les traits pathophysiologiques de l’asthme allergique, à savoir l’éosinophilie pulmonaire chronique, l’hyperréactivité bronchique des voies aériennes (HRB) à une variété de stimuli non spécifiques, la production excessive de mucus dans les voies aériennes et les niveaux élevés d’IgE dans le sérum, sont tous étroitement liés à une réponse immune de type Th2 aberrante envers des antigènes habituellement inhalés (Ag) {Busse, 2001 #466; Larche, 2003 #467; Ray, 1999 #465; Wills-Karp, 1999 #464}. Les lymphocytes Th2 spécifiques de l’antigène exercent des fonctions effectrices cruciales en produisant un répertoire propre de cytokines, les plus importantes d’entre-elles étant l’IL-4, l’IL-5 et l’IL-13 {Busse, 2001 #466; Larche, 2003 #467; Ray, 1999 #465; Wills-Karp, 1999 #464}. Essentiellement, l’asthme atopique est la manifestation d’une réponse immune Th2 aberrante envers un aéroallergène inoffensif. La condition requise pour développer une réponse immune Th2 est la participation de cellules présentatrices d’antigènes pour les réponses primaires et secondaires à un allergène. Les CDs sont les principales cellules pour activer et différencier les lymphocytes T CD4+ naïfs en sous-groupes distincts. De plus, la délétion des CDs durant la réponse immune primaire et secondaire de l’inflammation allergique des voies respiratoires dans les modèles animaux ont montré que ces cellules devaient absolument être présente au cours de ces deux phases. Les cellules dendritiques (CDs) sont des cellules présentatrices d’antigène professionnelles qui ont la capacité unique d’initier les réponses immunes primaires, incluant les réponses tolérogéniques. Nous avons génétiquement généré des CDs dérivés de cellules de la moëlle osseuse capables d’exprimer une cytokine immunosuppressive, l’IL-10. Nous avons testé leur capacité à contrôler un asthme expéritalement induit. Une simple injection par voie intra-trachéale de CDs transduites avec des lentivirus porteurs du gène codant l’IL-10 et chargées avec la protéine OVA (OVA-IL-10-DCs) à des souris naïves avant de les sensibiliser à l’OVA et de les provoquer à l’OVA prévient tous les traits caractéristiques de l’alargie des voies respiratoires, à savoir l’inflammation éosinophiliques des voies aériennes, l’hyperréactivité bronchique et la production de mucus, d’immunoglobulines spécifiques de l’antigène et d’IL-4. Les cellules OVA-IL-10-DCs réversent ausi l’asthme exprimental établi et ont des effets spécifiques de l’antigène, et ce, à long terme. Nous avons ensuite montré, en utilisant des souris déficientes pour l’IL-10, que l’IL-10 produit par l’hôte est nécessaire pour contrôler les effets immunomodulateurs des cellules OVA-IL-10-DCs. De plus, nous avons enfin une augmentation significative du pourcentage des lymphocytes T régulateurs CD4+CD25+Foxp3+IL-10+ spécifiques de l’OVA dans les ganglions médiastinaux (MLNs) des souris injectées avec les cellules OVA-IL-10-DC. Enfin, le transfert adoptif des lymphocytes CD4+ isolés des cellules de ganglions médiastinaux de souris injectées avec les cellules OVA-IL-10-DCs protège les souris receveuses, préalablement sensibilisées à l’OVA, d’une éosinophilie des voies aériennes suite à une provocation à l’OVA. Notre étude décrit une stratégie prometteuse pour induire une tolérance spécifique de l’antigène à long terme dans le cadre d’une allergie des voies aériennes.

La toxine de pertussis (PTX) est une A-B protéine considérée comme l’un des principaux facteurs de virulence de Bordetella pertussis, l’agent bactérien responsable de la coqueluche. Aujourd’hui, cette maladie représente encore un réel danger pour les nouveaux-nés et les nourrissons non ou partiellement immunisés. Actuellement, la coqueluche provoque encore la mort d’environ 350.000 individus par an. La toxicité de la PTX est liée à l’activité enzymatique de sa sous-unité A capable d’inhiber les voies de signalisation associées aux protéines Gi. La partie B, quant à elle, permet l’entrée de cette sous-unité A dans le cytoplasme des cellules cibles en se liant spécifiquement à son ou ses récepteurs membranaires toujours inconnus de nos jours. Des études réalisées chez la souris et chez l’homme ont montré que les vaccins anticoquelucheux combinés à différents antigènes vaccinaux étaient capables de moduler leurs réponses humorales spécifiques. Par ailleurs, la PTX est couramment qualifiée d’agent immunostimulant. En effet, des modèles murins de vaccination permirent d’identifier des propriétés adjuvantes de la PTX coadministrée avec des antigènes non relevants. Le travail développé dans ce manuscrit étudie les effets de la PTX sur 2 types cellulaires primordiaux sollicités lors d’une vaccination : la cellule dendritique (DC) et le lymphocyte T CD4+ naïf. Les DC sont les seules cellules présentatrices d’antigènes aptes à initier une réponse immune primaire. Dans un premier temps, nous avons montré que la PTX était capable d’activer des DC générées in vitro à partir de monocytes. En effet, elles acquièrent un phénotype mature caractérisé par une augmentation de l’expression membranaire des molécules costimulatrices et du CMH de classe II, démontrant un effet direct et spécifique de la PTX sur les DC myéloïdes. Parallèlement, ces DC produisent du TNF-a, de l’IL-12p40 et de l’IL-12p70 et activent NF-kappaB, un facteur de transcription essentiel au processus de maturation. Nous avons obtenu des résultats similaires avec une toxine génétiquement modifiée qui est enzymatiquement inactive. A partir de sang total incubé avec la PTX, nous avons par ailleurs observé que les DC circulantes du nouveau-né étaient déficientes dans leur maturation et leur sécrétion d’IL-12p70 comparées aux DC de l’adulte. D’autre part, il a été décrit précédemment que la PTX exerçait des effets mitogènes sur les lymphocytes T humains et murins. Cependant, le rôle qu’elle joue sur la population des lymphocytes T CD4 naïfs reste peu connu. A l’issue de notre second travail, nous pouvons dès lors affirmer que la PTX est également capable d’activer des lymphocytes T CD4+CD45RA+ naïfs isolés à partir des cellules mononuclées du sang périphérique, et ce indépendamment de son activité enzymatique. En effet, ces lymphocytes T CD4+ naïfs stimulés par la PTX prolifèrent, synthétisent des quantités non négligeables d'ARN messagers codant pour l’IL-2 et le TNF-a, augmentent l’expression membranaire des molécules CD40L, CD69 et CD25 et expriment la protéine Foxp3. Cette activation s’accompagne de la translocation nucléaire de NF-kappaB et NFAT. Parallèlement à l’adulte, la PTX active les lymphocytes T CD4 néonataux. Néanmoins, ceux-ci prolifèrent moins bien et expriment plus faiblement le CD40L à leur surface. Enfin, la PTX induit la sécrétion de taux importants d’IFN-g par des T CD4+CD45RA+ naïfs adultes mis en présence de DC autologues. Nous terminerons en proposant l’hypothèse suivante : La PTX pourrait exercer ses propriétés adjuvantes par l’intermédiaire de différents mécanismes comprenant notamment la maturation des DC d’origine myéloïde et l’activation des lymphocytes T CD4+CD45RA+ naïfs. Ces 2 populations cellulaires sont en effet les principaux protagonistes impliqués dans la réponse immune primaire.

SUMMARY Respiratory mucosal surfaces are constantly exposed to a broad range of non-pathogenic environmental antigens. In the absence of proinflammatory signals, inhalation of harmless antigens results in immunological tolerance. Indeed, lung dendritic cells stimulate the development of antigen-specific regulatory T cells. Nevertheless, epidemiological studies have shown that ambient air contains not only inert antigens but also immunostimulatory molecules of microbial origin. Of particular interest are endotoxins, a cell wall component of gram-negative bacteria that is ubiquitous in the environment. In spite of the fact that high levels of endotoxin exposure in early life protect against allergic sensitization, most evidence indicates that exposure to house-dust endotoxin is a significant risk factor for increased asthma prevalence and severity. When the respiratory tract is stimulated with airborne endotoxins, lung dendritic cells lose their tolerogenic properties and rather promote the development of an allergic response directed against concomitant aeroantigens. Although endotoxins are omnipresent in the environment and favour airway allergy, only a minority of people develops asthma. A unifying model reconciling these conflicting observations is still lacking. We report here that LPS-triggered airway allergy is tightly controlled by lung interstitial macrophages, a cell population that remains largely uncharacterized. Interstitial macrophages could be distinguished from alveolar macrophages by their unique capacity to inhibit lung dendritic cell maturation and migration upon LPS stimulation, thereby preventing sensitization to concomitant inhaled antigens. We furthermore demonstrated that functional paralysis of LPS-stimulated dendritic cells involves interleukin-10 production by interstitial macrophages. Finally, we demonstrate that specific in vivo elimination of interstitial macrophages leads to overt asthmatic reactions to innocuous airborne antigens inhaled along with low LPS doses. Our study thus reveals a crucial role for interstitial macrophages in maintaining immune homeostasis in the respiratory tract and provides an explanation for the paradox that airborne LPS has the ability to promote the induction of Th2 responses by lung dendritic cells but does not provoke airway allergy under normal conditions. In the presence of LPS, interstitial macrophages, but not alveolar macrophages, break the link between innate and adaptive immunity, allowing harmless inhaled antigens to escape from T cell-dependent responses. RÉSUMÉ Le système respiratoire est continuellement exposé à de nombreux antigènes environnementaux non pathogéniques. En labsence de signal proinflammatoire, linhalation dantigènes inoffensifs aboutit au développement dune tolérance immunologique. Dans ces conditions, les cellules dendritiques pulmonaires tolérogènes stimulent le développement de lymphocytes T régulateurs. Cependant, les études épidémiologiques montrent que lair ambiant ne contient pas que des antigènes inertes mais également des molécules immunostimulatrices dorigine microbienne dont les endotoxines (LPS, lipopolysaccharide). La présence dans lenvironnement de ce composant de la paroi des bactéries Gram négatives est ubiquiste. Malgré le fait que lexposition à de hauts niveaux de LPS durant lenfance semble protéger contre la sensibilisation allergique, la plupart des études montrent que les endotoxines contenues dans la poussière domestique constituent un facteur de risque significatif pour la prévalence et la sévérité de lasthme. Quand le système respiratoire est stimulé par le LPS aérogène, les cellules dendritiques perdent leurs propriétés tolérogènes et deviennent capables dinduire le développement dune réponse allergique. Bien que les endotoxines soient omniprésentes dans lenvironnement et favorisent lallergie des voies respiratoires, seulement une minorité de personnes est asthmatique. Ces observations contradictoires impliquent lexistence de mécanismes protecteurs non encore décrits capables de prévenir les réponses allergiques induites par les endotoxines. Nous montrons dans ce travail que lallergie des voies respiratoires induite par le LPS est étroitement contrôlée par les macrophages interstitiels, une sous-population de macrophages pulmonaires dont la fonction in vivo navait jamais été caractérisée. Les macrophages interstitiels peuvent être distingués des macrophages alvéolaires par leur capacité unique à inhiber la maturation et la migration des cellules dendritiques induites par lexposition du système respiratoire au LPS, prévenant ainsi la sensibilisation aux aéroantigènes inhalés concomitamment. De plus, nous démontrons que linhibition fonctionnelle des cellules dendritiques implique la sécrétion dIL-10 par les macrophages interstitiels. Finalement, nous montrons que lélimination spécifique des macrophages interstitiels in vivo aboutit au développement dune réponse asthmatique dirigée contre les aéroantigènes inoffensifs inhalés avec de faibles doses de LPS. Notre travail révèle un rôle crucial des macrophages interstitiels dans le maintien de lhoméostasie immunitaire du tractus respiratoire et fournit une explication au paradoxe que le LPS aérogène a la capacité de favoriser linduction de réponses Th2 par les cellules dendritiques mais ne provoque pas dallergie des voies respiratoires dans les conditions normales. En présence de LPS, les macrophages interstitiels, mais pas les macrophages alvéolaires, brisent le lien entre limmunité innée et limmunité adaptative, permettant aux antigènes inhalés déchapper aux réponses dépendantes des lymphocytes T.

Haematopoietic development is a complex process that is strictly hierarchically organized. Here, the phagocyte lineages are a very heterogeneous cell compartment with specialized functions in innate immunity and induction of adaptive immune responses. Their generation from a common precursor must be tightly controlled. Interference within lineage formation programs for example by mutation or change in expression levels of transcription factors (TF) is causative to leukaemia. However, the molecular mechanisms driving specification into distinct phagocytes remain poorly understood. In the present study I identify the transcription factor Interferon Regulatory Factor 8 (IRF8) as the specification factor of dendritic cell (DC) commitment in early phagocyte precursors. Employing an IRF8 reporter mouse, I showed the distinct Irf8 expression in haematopoietic lineage diversification and isolated a novel bone marrow resident progenitor which selectively differentiates into CD8α+ conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) in vivo. This progenitor strictly depends on Irf8 expression to properly establish its transcriptional DC program while suppressing a lineage-inappropriate neutrophile program. Moreover, I demonstrated that Irf8 expression during this cDC commitment-step depends on a newly discovered myeloid-specific cis-enhancer which is controlled by the haematopoietic transcription factors PU.1 and RUNX1. Interference with their binding leads to abrogation of Irf8 expression, subsequently to disturbed cell fate decisions, demonstrating the importance of these factors for proper phagocyte cell development. Collectively, these data delineate a transcriptional program establishing cDC fate choice with IRF8 in its center. / Die Differenzierung von hämatopoietischen Zellen ist ein komplexer Prozess, der strikt hierarchisch organisiert ist. Dabei stellen die Phagozyten eine sehr heterogene Zellpopulation dar, mit hochspezialisierten Funktionen im angeborenen Immunsystem sowie während der Initialisierung der adaptiven Immunreaktion. Ihre Entwicklung, ausgehend von einer gemeinsamen Vorläuferzelle, unterliegt einer strikten Kontrolle. Die Beeinträchtigung dieser Linienentscheidungsprogramme, z.B. durch Mutationen oder Änderungen der Expressionslevel von Transkriptionsfaktoren kann Leukämie auslösen. Die molekularen Mechanismen, welche die linienspezifische Entwicklung steuern, sind allerdings noch nicht im Detail bekannt. In dieser Arbeit zeige ich den maßgeblichen Einfluss des Transkriptionsfaktors Interferon Regulierender Faktor 8 (IRF8) auf die Entwicklung von dendritischen Zellen (DC) innerhalb der Phagozyten. Mittels einer IRF8-Reporter Maus stellte ich die sehr differenziellen Expressionsmuster von Irf8 in der hämatopoietischen Entwicklung dar. Dabei konnte ich eine neue, im Knochenmark lokalisierte, Vorläuferpopulation isolieren, die in vivo spezifisch Differenzierung in CD8α+ konventionelle dendritische Zellen (cDC) steuert. Dieser Vorläufer ist dabei absolut von der Expression von Irf8 abhängig und etabliert auf transkriptioneller Ebene die dendritische Zellentwicklung, während gleichzeitig die Entwicklung neutrophiler Zellen unterdrückt wird. Darüber hinaus zeigte ich, dass Irf8 Expression während der cDC Entwicklung von einem neu charakterisierten cis-regulatorischen Enhancer abhängt, der spezifisch in myeloiden Zellen agiert. Ich konnte zeigen, dass die hämatopoietischen Transkriptionfaktoren PU.1 und RUNX1 mittels dieses Enhancers die Irf8 Expression steuern. Können diese beiden Faktoren nicht mit dem Enhancer interagieren, führt das zu stark verminderter Irf8 Expression, damit zu Veränderungen in den Differnzierungsprogrammen der Zellen, was die Bedeutung dieses regulatorischen Mechanismus unterstreicht. Zusammengefasst beschreiben diese Daten die Etablierung der frühen cDC Entwicklung, in der IRF8 die zentrale Rolle spielt.

Efficient removal of apoptotic cells is critical for development, tissue remodelling, maintenance of homeostasis, and response to injury. Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is mediated by many phagocytic receptors, soluble bridging molecules, and pro-phagocytic ligands on the surface of apoptotic cells. Macrophage phagocytosis in general is controlled by stimulatory and inhibitory mechanisms. An example of the latter mechanism is that mediated by the cell surface glycoprotein CD47, which by binding to the inhibitory receptor Signal Regulatory Protein alpha (SIRPα) on macrophages, is known to inhibit phagocytosis of viable host cells. The studies of the present thesis aimed at investigating possible changes to CD47 on apoptotic cells, which could influence their elimination by macrophages. The endoplasmatic protein calreticulin (CRT), in conjunction with Low density lipoprotein Receptorrelated Protein 1 (LRP1) on the phagocyte, can act as a receptor for collectin family members and mediate uptake of apoptotic cells. However, CRT itself was found to also be expressed on the surface of many viable cell types, and the CRT expression increased on apoptotic cells. By using antibodies to LRP1 or receptor‐associated protein (RAP), an antagonist blocking LRP1 ligand binding, we found that CRT on target cells could interact in trans with LRP1 on a phagocyte and stimulate phagocytosis. CD47 on the target cell inhibited LRP1‐mediated phagocytosis of viable cells (e.g. lymphocytes or erythtocytes), but not that of apoptotic cells. The inability of CD47 on apoptotic cells to inhibit LRP1‐ mediated phagocytosis could be explained in two ways: 1) Some apoptotic cell types (fibroblasts and neutrophils, but not Jurkat T cells) lost CD47 from the cell surface, or 2) CD47 is evenly distributed on the surface of viable cells, while it was redistributed into patches on apoptotic cells, segregated away from areas of the plasma membrane where the pro‐phagocytic ligands CRT and phoaphatidylserine (PS) were concentrated. Apoptotic murine thymocytes also showed a patched distribution of CD47, but no significant loss of the receptor. However, both PS‐independent and PS‐dependent macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic CD47‐/‐ thymocytes was less efficient than uptake of apoptotic wild‐type (wt) thymocytes. This contradictory finding was explained by the fact that CD47 on apoptotic thymocytes did no longer inhibit phagocytosis, but rather mediated binding of the apoptotic cell to the macrophage. These effects could in part be dependent on the apoptotic cell type, since uptake of experimentally senescent PS+ wt or CD47‐/‐ erythrocytes by macrophage in vitro, or by dendritic cells (DC) in vivo, were the same. In vivo, PS+ erythrocytes were predominantly trapped by marginal zone macrophages and by CD8+ CD207+ DCs in the splenic marginal zone. DCs which had taken up PS+ erythrocytes showed a slight increase in expression levels of CD40, CD86 and MHC class II. These findings suggest that PS+ erythrocytes may be recognized by splenic macrophages and DCs in ways similar to that reported for apoptotic T cells. Uptake of senescent erythrocytes by DCs may serve as an important mechanism to maintain self‐tolerance to erythrocyte antigens, and defects in this function may facilitate development of AIHA. Glucocorticoids are used to treat inflammatory conditions and can enhance macrophage uptake of apoptotic cells. We found that the glucocorticoid dexamethasone time‐ and dose‐dependently stimulated macrophage cell surface LRP1 expression. Dexamethasone‐stimulated macrophages also showed enhanced phagocytosis of apoptotic thymocytes and unopsonized viable CD47‐/‐ erythrocytes. In summary, LRP1 can mediate phagocytosis of both viable and apoptotic cells by binding CRT on the target cell. Macrophage expression of LRP1 is increased by glucocorticoids, which could be one explanation for the anti‐inflammatory role of glucocorticoids. While CD47 on viable cells efficiently inhibits phagocytosis in macrophages, CD47 on apoptotic cells does not and can sometimes even promote their removal.

Leishmania donovani is a blood-borne tropicial parasite, which infects humans through bites by Phlebotomus sandflies. The parasite survives and multiplies inside macrophages in inner organs, and causes the deadly disease visceral leishmaniasis (Kala-Azar). Macrophages and dendritic cells (DC) are professional antigen-presenting cells involved in the initiation of immune responses. Immature DC are present in all tissues where they internalise and process antigen, in response to which they migrate from tissue, into draining lymphoid organs, undergo maturation and present antigens to lymphocytes. Control measures for leishmaniasis include testing of new diagnostics and development of affordable and effective vaccines for humans. Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) is the major surface component of Leishmania donovani promastigotes. LPG comprises a membrane-anchoring lysophosphatidylinositol part and an extracellular chain of disaccharide phosphates. These repetitions are crucial for parasite survival inside macrophages following phagocytosis. LPG has several specific effects on the host cell including inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC) activity, and inhibition of phagosomal maturation, a process requiring depolymerization of periphagosomal F-actin. Confocal microscopy and image analysis were used to follow F-actin dynamics in single macrophages during phagocytosis of L. donovani promastigotes and LPG-coated particles. F-actin did not depolymerize, but instead progressively polymerized around phagosomes with LPG-containing prey. This correlated with reduced translocation of PKCα to the phagosome and blocked phagosomal maturation. LPG also inhibited cortical actin turnover, which could be the underlying cause of the reduced uptake of LPG-containing prey. Extracellular- and intracellular calcium was necessary for phagocytosis, periphagosomal F-actin breakdown and phagosomal maturation in macrophages interacting with unopsonized prey,and for the action of LPG. We also studied F-actin turnover in macrophages overexpressing dominant-negative (DN) PKCα. DN PKCα macrophages showed increased amounts of cortical F-actin, decreased phagocytic capacity, inhibition of periphagosomal F-actin breakdown and defective phagosomal maturation. When DN PKCα macrophages interacted with LPG-containing prey, phagocytosis was almost completely blocked. Moreover, we found that Leishmania promastigotes and particularly LPG inhibit DC maturation and detachment from distinct surfaces. Thus, LPG from Leishmania donovani could directly inhibit DC migration to lymphoid organs, antigen-presentation and development of immunity.