This study is an inquiry into design-theoretical aspects of architectural design in Finland based mainly on the pragmatist philosophy of John Dewey. The study comprises two case studies. The . rst case deals with a young family designing their future home – a detached house built from prefabricated components – in cooperation with an architect. The second case deals with the design process of a leading Finnish architect, Professor Ilmari Lahdelma, as he prepares his proposal for an architectural competition for a new city library in Lohja, a competition he eventually wins. The case describes and interprets Lahdelma’s design process, the processes of other competition entries made by the of. ce staff, as well as the process of the jury’s evaluation of the competition entries. The two cases are analysed and interwoven with aspects from three different theoretical perspectives: existing design theories, Pierre Bourdieu’s . eld theory and John Dewey’s thinking regarding art and research. In the study I argue that Dewey’s philosophy can provide a framework for a design-theoretical epistemology. I also arrive at conclusions regarding the interpretation of some key design-theoretical concepts and the position of design theory and its structures. I further argue that the Finnish architectural competition system is a strong tool for generating developments in the production of the architectural avant-garde, which acts as the leading light for the rest of the . eld of architecture. The present study also highlights the gap between ‘high-’ and ‘low culture’ in the . eld of architecture, yet points out that the design of a simple family house – assumedly a case of ‘low culture’ – is by no means trivial to the family itself, and is indeed . lled with moments of aesthetic experiences, which is a central issue in Dewey’s description of creative processes.

La conception de variété (ou diversité) de produit est un processus essentiel pour atteindre le niveau de flexibilité requis par la personnalisation de masse. Pendant le processus de conception de la variété, les clients et les experts sont impliqués dans la définition de la meilleure solution. Par conséquent, la compréhension des liens entre les connaissances provenant de ces différents domaines, i.e. client, produit, processus est devenue nécessaire. Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons en particulier à la formalisation de ces connaissances. En effet, même si plusieurs efforts ont étés accomplis dans le domaine de la représentation de la connaissance, la pensée logiciste (i.e. utilisation de méthode à base de logiques formelles) reste la base de la majeure partie des travaux sur la formalisation de la connaissance. Des réflexions appropriées sur l’utilisation des logiques peuvent montrer les risques d’ambiguïté de la représentation: l’utilisation de la logique conduit souvent à une représentation sujette à plusieurs interprétations, i.e. une représentation ambiguë. Une représentation avec cette caractéristique ne répond pas à l’exigence de bien comprendre les liens entre les différentes connaissances impliquées dans la conception de la variété. Notre travail s’intéresse, donc, au développement d’un cadre de modélisation de la connaissance de conception basé sur l’anti-logicisme. Les travaux sur les systèmes développés à partir des principes de cette école de représentation de la connaissance montrent à travers des applications concrètes dans les domaines de la robotique ou des systèmes multi-agents que les comportements intelligents peuvent être obtenus sans une représentation de la connaissance basée sur les logiques. Ce cadre permet de développer une variété de produit-processus à partir d’une clientèle définie au départ. Finalement, un critère pour comparer les différentes alternatives de variété générées est aussi proposé. Une méthode pour instancier le cadre de modélisation sur un logiciel de CAO 3D a été développée. De plus, un prototype pour utiliser les modèles de connaissance avec un solveur mathématique a été conçu et développé. Les propositions ont été testées sur un cas d’étude industriel, i.e. batterie froide d’un appareil de réfrigération. Ce test a permis de discuter les avantages et les limites de nos propositions / The product variety design is an essential process in order to deal with the flexibility requested by the mass-customisation. During the product variety stage, customers and expert are involved in the definition of the best variety. Therefore a deep understanding of the links between knowledge coming from the customer domain, product domain and process domain is needed. In this thesis the research focus is on the formalisation of this knowledge. Indeed, even if many efforts are present in the knowledge representation literature, logics are always used to build these links. But appropriate reflections about the use of logics can lead to recognise the risk of ambiguity of the representations, i.e. more than one interpretation of the same represented object are possible. This ambiguity would make the represented knowledge not appropriate for the product variety design. In this work, we propose a framework for the knowledge representation based on the anti-logicism. Since the samples of anti-logicist systems (e.g. multi-agents, robots) have shown an intelligent behaviour without a representation based on logics, we use the principles the anti-logicism to propose our knowledge representation framework. A knowledge representation framework that allows to connect the customer requirements to the manufacturing process parameters is proposed. The core feature of the models based on this framework is the non-ambiguity. Indeed, each piece of knowledge that composes the model can be interpreted in one unique way. This feature allows the perfect collaboration between customer, product engineers and process engineering during the variety design stage. Once the pieces of knowledge coming from different domains are integrated in one model, the framework explains how to generate alternatives of product-process variety by starting from a given customer set. Finally a criterion to compare the different generated alternatives of product-process variety is proposed. A method to instantiate the framework on a 3D CAD has been developed. Moreover, a prototype that uses the knowledge model along with a mathematical solver to propose the best variety has been developed. The impact of the framework on the selection process and on the design process of a customisable product (i.e. water coil) is tested. The test of the instantiation and the prototype allows to show the advantages and the limit of the proposals

<p>The primary research question of this dissertation is, \textit{How do contestants make sequential design decisions under the influence of competition?} To address this question, I study the influence of three factors, that can be controlled by the contest organizers, on the contestants' sequential information acquisition and decision-making behaviors. These factors are (i) a contestant's domain knowledge, (ii) framing of a design problem, and (iii) information about historical contests. The \textit{central hypothesis} is that by conducting controlled behavioral experiments we can acquire data of contestant behaviors that can be used to calibrate computational models of contestants' sequential decision-making behaviors, thereby, enabling predictions about the design outcomes. The behavioral results suggest that (i) contestants better understand problem constraints and generate more feasible design solutions when a design problem is framed in a domain-specific context as compared to a domain-independent context, (ii) contestants' efforts to acquire information about a design artifact to make design improvements are significantly affected by the information provided to them about their opponent who is competing to achieve the same objectives, and (iii) contestants make information acquisition decisions such as when to stop acquiring information, based on various criteria such as the number of resources, the target objective value, and the observed amount of improvement in their design quality. Moreover, the threshold values of such criteria are influenced by the information the contestants have about their opponent. The results imply that (i) by understanding the influence of an individual's domain knowledge and framing of a problem we can provide decision-support tools to the contestants in engineering design contexts to better acquire problem-specific information (ii) we can enable contest designers to decide what information to share to improve the quality of the design outcomes of design contest, and (iii) from an educational standpoint, we can enable instructors to provide students with accurate assessments of their domain knowledge by understanding students' information acquisition and decision making behaviors in their design projects. The \textit{primary contribution} of this dissertation is the computational models of an individual's sequential decision-making process that incorporate the behavioral results discussed above in competitive design scenarios. Moreover, a framework to conduct factorial investigations of human decision making through a combination of theory and behavioral experimentation is illustrated. <br></p>

In this knowledge economy, organizations are leveraging their competence through the knowledge they possess. Managing knowledge will potentially retain the competence held by the organization if knowledge generated across its projects and units is captured, structured and reused. Even though many tools and techniques are proposed in the literature to support these activities, their adoption in industry has been meagre. This may be due to development of tools without basing them on substantial and careful descriptive studies. This raises the following research issues: the knowledge processes and knowledge sources available in organizations and their characteristics need to be understood better. To address these gaps, following objectives are addressed in this research: ♦ To understand the specific needs and capability of the organization for capture and reuse of product development knowledge and ♦ To evaluate various alternative supports for capture and structure of relevant, evolving product development knowledge for reuse. To address these objectives, two observational studies were conducted in the organizations. To get a broader picture about the knowledge processes occurring in the organization, a KRIT model is proposed which is an acronym for Knowledge of solutions-Requirements-Interactions-Tasks, in which interactions of the designers with people and tools play the central role in processing knowledge during design. The KRIT model is validated through the demonstration of the existence of its nodes and links. From the observations it has been found that interactions ‘designer working with computer’, ‘two designers working with a computer’ and ‘two designers interacting with each other’ are most frequently occurred, and occupied most of the time during designing. Any tools to support knowledge capture and reuse should support these interactions such that capture and reuse can be intuitive and in-built in a natural way into a designer’s work habits. It is emphasized that there is a substantial need to increase the percentage of time spent by designers on capturing knowledge during the design process. This increase in time would lead to decrease in a designers’ time spent on knowledge acquisition and dissemination provided designers are capturing reusable knowledge. To answer capture and reuse of knowledge in detail in the observational studies, a new taxonomy of knowledge is proposed. By linking the representations of argumentation, designer’s activities, and the artefact being designed, we argued that the expressiveness of this taxonomy is high compared to the others proposed in the literature. The taxonomy has three broad categories of knowledge: topics, classes, and activities. Based on the definitions of the factors used in the taxonomy and the analysis of the protocols, the factors in each group under each category are argued to be mutually exclusive. In order to study the links between the proposed categories and factors in the taxonomy of knowledge, a method for converting the questions and answers (from the protocol data) into a generic format is framed. The taxonomy is validated comprehensively, and is able to cover various stages of design. Most of the designers’ time was spent working with a CAD package, in which most of the kinds of knowledge mentioned in the proposed taxonomy of knowledge was neither captured not reused. The important observations noted by comparing the knowledge captured in the preliminary study and the main study are as follows: Compared to the preliminary study, process related information and knowledge are captured higher in the main study. In the main study behavioural related content is captured more; whereas in the preliminary study structural content is captured more. The factors organization, usage, maintenance and sales captured in the preliminary study are not at all captured in the main study. In order to assess the usefulness of the knowledge captured, the kinds of knowledge needs of designers were compared with the kinds of knowledge captured. The important observations about the knowledge needs are: Irrespective of the design stages, in almost 50% of the questions, designers interacted with others to know about old issues or proposals in both the studies. A designer’s time for designing would benefit considerably if the answers for these 50% of the old questions were captured and made available for retrieval in formal documents. In both the studies, proposals based questions played a vital role in the questions analyzed. It shows that considerable proportion of time was spent by the designers on validating, by asking questions, the answers known to them. In contrast to the preliminary study, the designers’ needs for process-related information or knowledge were much higher than that for product-related information or knowledge. Comparing the generic questions obtained from the knowledge needs and knowledge captured reveals that only 14% and 26% with product related content and only 10% and 11.3% of the process based content asked by designers during designing were captured in the preliminary and the main study. These results show that there is a mismatch between knowledge captured and knowledge needed by the designers. This may be one of the primary reasons for the poor usage of documents in the organization. The generic questions generated from the questions asked by the designers and various documents will act as a guideline to the designers for what knowledge and information should and should not to be captured. Due to restrictions in the observations, a questionnaire survey was conducted to achieve the objective to collect 10% of total number of employees’ perspectives about the issues considered in this research. The important observations from the analyses of the collected questionnaire are: Designers’ perceive all types of interactions as important and frequent for information generation and sharing. These results are contradictory to the personal observations in which only interactions ‘designer working with computer’ and ‘two designers working with a computer’ occurred frequently. This shows that designers are unable to identify the kinds of interaction which they perform in their daily activities. Due to this, the information processes occurring within these interactions are not perceptible to the designers. Designers perceive that they get the right information at the right time in only 4 or more out of 10 for most of the times. This perception illustrates there is substantial need for the development of support to satisfy the information needs of designers. Analyses of the types of questions reveal that the question asking behavior of the designers is not static; the major share of questions falling under the category ‘question from answer given’ could be interpreted as: designers often do not frame exact questions to fulfil their requirements; they grab the opportunity to take as much as knowledge as possible during an interaction. Analyses of the types of answers reveal that designers gave more inferences on their answers in order to give a better response, which in turn should help reduce the number of questions subsequently asked especially in the protocol coded as ‘new answer’. Two studies have been used to assess the effectiveness of seven tools for supporting knowledge capture and reuse. The important observations from the initial study are: Mobile E-Notes TakerTM is ranked higher because this equipment provides a blend of properties between the paper and computer. These observations stress the importance of features provided for knowledge generation, modification, capture and reuse in the system. The observations from analyzing the three top rated tools (Mobile E-Notes TakerTM, Tablet with viewing facility and Computer with RhinocerosTM CAD package) to understand influence of these tools on knowledge capture and reuse during conceptual designing are: The differences observed in the percentage of capture between the usage of the three tools demonstrate that tools have an influence on the knowledge capture activity. Even though none of the three tools capture adequate knowledge during designing, Mobile e-Notes TakerTM seems to be the best tool for capture compared to the other two tools, both in the original and redesign experiments. These results suggest that some other mechanisms should be added to these tools so that their effectiveness of capturing could be increased. One mechanism is to incorporate the proposed KRIT model and the taxonomy of knowledge during designing. This integration will be one of the good mechanisms to aid knowledge capture and reuse, because the knowledge capture will occur along with the knowledge creation process. We believe that through this integration the purpose to enhance the knowledge capture and reuse during the design process will be achieved.

[pt] Durante as etapas iniciais de design, o designer forma um entendimento inicial sobre o problema que ele deve resolver e desenvolve suas primeiras ideias, geralmente influenciadas por conhecimentos de design passados. Com o objetivo de auxiliar o design de IHC (interação humano-computador) neste contexto, nós investigamos como podemos usar o raciocínio baseado em casos (CBR) para ajudar designers a acessar e reutilizar conhecimentos de design para resolver novos problemas de IHC. Nós conduzimos entrevistas com designers de IHC profissionais para coletar dados sobre como eles lidam com problemas de design e suas motivações e expectativas sobre o uso de conhecimentos de design auxiliado por uma ferramenta de CBR. Usando estes dados, construímos uma ferramenta, chamada CHIDeK, que contém uma biblioteca contendo casos de design de IHC e fornece acesso aos casos através de navegação facetada, links diretos entre casos e busca. Para investigar como o CHIDeK influencia a atividade de design, conduzimos um estudo que simulava a etapa inicial de design de IHC de um sistema online de reserva de bicicletas. Alguns participantes podiam resolver o problema enquanto tinham acesso ao CHIDeK e outros deviam resolver sem o CHIDeK. Descobrimos que os casos no CHIDeK ajudaram o design motivando o processo de reflexão dos designers, ativando memórias de experiências com sistemas similares aos descritos nos casos e ajudando a gerar novas ideias. Também identificamos algumas limitações na representação dos casos, o que oferece oportunidade para novas pesquisas. Comparando ambos os tipos de atividade de design, percebemos que os designers sem a biblioteca de casos usaram a mesma solução para um dos itens descrito no cenário do estudo, enquanto os designers com os casos variaram entre duas soluções. Concluímos dizendo que uma ferramenta de CBR tem muito potencial para ajudar na atividade de design, porém existem problemas que devem ser endereçados por pesquisas futuras. / [en] During the early stages of design, the designer forms an initial understanding about the problem and some ideas on how to solve it, often influenced by previous design knowledge. In order to support HCI design in this context, we investigated ways to use case-based reasoning (CBR) to help designers access and reuse design knowledge to solve new HCI design problems. We conducted interviews with professional HCI designers to collect data about how they deal with design problems, and their motivations and expectations regarding the use of design knowledge aided by a CBR tool. Using this data, we designed and developed a tool called CHIDeK, which has a library containing HCI design cases and provides access to them through faceted navigation, direct links between cases, and search. To investigate the way CHIDeK influences the design activity, we conducted a study that simulated the early stage of HCI design of an online bike reservation system. Some participants could solve the problem while having access to CHIDeK and others had to solve it without CHIDeK. We discovered that the cases from CHIDeK supported the design by motivating the designers reflective process, triggering their memories of experiences with systems similar to the ones in cases, and helping generate new ideas. We also identified some limitations in the case representation, which offers an opportunity for further research. When comparing both kinds of design activities, we noticed that designers without the case library used the same solution for one of the issues described in the study scenario, while the designers with the cases varied between two solutions. We concluded that a CBR tool has much potential to aid the design activity, but there are still issues that need to be addressed by further research.

<div>Although design is part of everyday experience, increased proficiency in managing and reflecting while designing signify greater proficiency as a designer. This capacity for regulation in design is crucial for learning, including from failure experiences, while designing. Failure and iteration are integral parts of design, with potential cognitive and psychological ramifications. On the one hand, failure can be framed as a learning experience that interrupts thinking and evokes reflection. On the other hand, it can be detrimental for confidence and motivation or derail the design process. Based on similarities between design and self-regulation, I articulate a framework whereby responses to failure might be regulated by beginning designers. Then, this case study applies the framework to describe the experiences and perspectives of beginning designers as they work and fail, illuminating issues of failure in design and the extent of their self-regulation.</div><div><br></div><div>The in situ design processes of four teams was examined to describe self-regulation strategies among student designers. Analysis was conducted with two methods: linkography and typological thematic analysis. Linkography, based on think-aloud data, provided a visual representation of the design process and tools to identify reflection, planning, and critical moments in the design process. Typological analysis, based on think-aloud data, follow-up interviews, and design journals, was used to investigate specific strategies of self-regulation. The complementary methods contribute to understanding beginning designers’ self-regulation from multiple perspectives.</div><div><br></div><div>Results portray varied trajectories in design, ranging from repeated failure and determination to fleeting success and satisfaction. Class structures emerge in designers’ patterns of planning and reflection. These highlight the contextualized and evolutionary nature of design and self-regulation. Furthermore, linkographic evidence showed a beginning sense-making process, followed by oscillating phases of forward and backward thinking, to various degrees. Moments of testing, both successes and failure, were critically connected in the design process.</div><div><br></div><div>Thematic analysis identified 10 themes, aligning with the self-regulatory phases of forethought, performance, and reflection. The themes highlight how regulation in forethought is used to shape performance based on past iterations; meanwhile, the identification and attribution of failures relays information on how, and whether to iterate. Collectively, thematic findings reinforce the cyclical nature of design and self-regulation.</div><div><br></div><div>Design and self-regulation are compatible ways of thinking; for designers, the juxtaposition of these concepts may be useful to inform patterns of navigating the problem-solving process. For educators, the imposition of classroom structures in design and self-regulatory thinking draws attention to instructional design and assessment for supporting student thinking. And for researchers of design or self-regulation, these methods can give confidence for further exploration.</div>

The practice of communication design has developed from a visual-communication service industry into a multi-facetted profession, directly involved with the maintenance and creation of social and cultural capital. The ancestry of communication design has led to its continued perception as a neutral tool for the achievement of communication. This research project aims to investigate the possible contributions of communication design as a practice, if it were to re-align its goals towards supporting and facilitating the community within which it is practiced. This research project is about the communication designer and the communities within which they practice: clients; target markets; companies; managers; neighbourhood groups; groups in a particular place and time; communities of practitioners; and emergent or yet to emerge communities. The project investigates designer agency and the ways for a communication designer to work holistically within communities: being or becoming part of them; working through and with them toward the achievement of communication goals. As much as it is about communicating, it is also about community. It is about designers working as conduits, facilitating and enabling the communities of their practice to find expression. It is about a democratisation of communication design authorship and power. It is about the design process as an educational process - all parts and participants within a design projects' community learning and teaching simultaneously. The research project encompasses a series of component projects, across a range of different media, using a practice-led-research framework and a reflective practitioner methodology as the key investigative tool.

Engineering designers commonly make sequential information acquisition decisions such as selecting designs for performance evaluation, selecting information sources, deciding whom to communicate with in design teams, and deciding when to stop design exploration. There is significant literature on normative decision making for engineering design, however, there is a lack of descriptive modeling of how designers actually make information acquisition decisions. Such descriptive modeling is important for accurately modeling design decisions, identifying sources of inefficiencies, and improving the design process. To that end, the research objective of the dissertation is to understand how designers make sequential information acquisition decisions and identify models that provide the best description of a designer’s decisions strategies. For gaining this understanding, the research approach consists of a synthesis of descriptive theories from psychological and cognitive sciences, along with empirical evidence from behavioral experiments under different design situations. Statistical Bayesian inference is used to determine how well alternate descriptive decision models describe the experimental data. This approach quantifies a designer's decision strategies through posterior parameter estimation and Bayesian model comparison. <br><br>Two research studies, presented in this dissertation, focus on assessing the effects of monetary incentives, fixed budget, type of design space exploration, and the availability of system-wide information on information acquisition decisions. The first study presented in this dissertation investigates information acquisition by an individual designer when multiple information sources are available and the total budget is limited. The results suggest that the student subjects' decisions are better represented by the heuristic-based models than the expected utility(EU)-based models. <br>While the EU-based models result in better net payoff, the heuristic models used by the subjects generate better design performance. The results also indicate the potential for nudging designers' decisions towards maximizing the net payoff by setting the fixed budget at low values and providing monetary incentives proportional to the saved budget.<br><br>The second study investigates information acquisition through communication. The focus is on designers’ decisions about whom to communicate with, and how much to communicate when there is interdependence between subsystems being designed. This study analyzes team communication of NASA engineers at a mission design laboratory (MDL) as well as of engineering students designing a simplified automotive engine in an undergraduate classroom environment. The results indicate that the rate of interactions increases in response to the reduce in system-level design performance in both settings. Additionally, the following factors seem to positively influence communication decisions: the pairwise design interdependence, node-wise popularity (significant with NASA MDL engineers due to large team size), and pairwise reciprocity.<br><br>The dissertation work increases the knowledge about engineering design decision making in following aspects. First, individuals make information acquisition decisions using simple heuristics based on in-situ information such as available budget amount and present system performance.<br>The proposed multi-discipline approach proves helpful for describing heuristics analytically and inferring context-specific decision strategies using statistical Bayesian inference. This work has potential application in developing decision support tools for engineering design. Second, the comparison of communication patterns between student design teams and NASA MDL teams reveals that the engine experiment preserves some but not all of the communication patterns of interest. We find that the representativeness depends not on matching subjects, tasks, and context separately, but rather on the behavior that results from the interactions of these three dimensions. This work provides lessons for designing representative experiments in the future.

Das Anliegen der Arbeit besteht in der Entwicklung eines Wissensrepräsentationsmodells, das sich insbesondere für die Beschreibung komplex strukturierter Objekte eignet. Den Ausgangspunkt bildet eine Charakterisierung der Problematik der Wissensrepräsentation. Aus der Darstellung eines für das Gebiet der rechnergestützten Konstruktion typischen Diskursbereiches Getriebekonstruktion lassen sich Anforderungen an Modelle zur Beschreibung komplex strukturierter Objekte in Wissensbasen ableiten. Der Hauptteil der Arbeit besteht in der Entwicklung eines funktionalen Wissensrepräsentationsmodells, das diesen Anforderungen gerecht wird. Das Modell ermöglicht gleichzeitig eine effiziente Implementation wissensbasierter Systeme auf der Grundlage der Programmiersprache LISP sowie das Herstellen von Beziehungen zu Datenmodellen einerseits und Wissensrepräsentationsmodellen, insbesondere der Prädikatenlogik erster Ordnung, andererseits. Unter Bezugnahme auf die Datenbanktechnologie wird die Struktur von Wissensbanksystemen beschrieben. Ein wesentlicher Aspekt der Arbeit besteht im Aufzeigen der Möglichkeit und des Weges, das Wissen eines Konstrukteurs zu formalisieren und in eine Wissensbasis abzubilden.:1. Einleitung 2. Wissensrepräsentation in technischen Systemen 3. Beispielsdiskursbereiche 4. Funktionales Wissensrepräsentationsmodell 5. Beziehungen zwischen Prädikatenlogik erster Ordnung und funktionalem Wissensrepräsentationsmodell 6. Aufbau von Wissensbanksystemen 7. Anwendung des funktionalen Wissensrepräsentationsmodells für die Implementation wissensbasierter Systeme 8. Schlussbemerkungen