Le squelette 1,3,5-triazépane-2,6-dione est un hétérocycle à sept chainons dérivé de dipeptides et accessible en quatre étapes en solution. Une voie de synthèse en parallèle sur support solide de cet hétérocycle a été élaborée. Cette synthèse, qui repose sur les principes de "catch and release" et de cyclo-clivage, a permis la création d’une chimiothèque de plus d’une centaine de composés. Pour augmenter la diversité du squelette 1,3,5-triazépane-2,6-dione, des modifications post-cyclisation peuvent avoir lieu telles que des réactions de N-mono-alkylation ou de N,N-di-alkylation de l’urée, des réactions d’acylation ou bien des réactions de thionation des fonctions carbonyles. De même, la synthèse des cycles analogues aux 1,3,5-triazépane-2,6-diones des tailles plus importantes a été examinée conduisant à l’obtention de plusieurs macrocycles.Les 1,3,5-triazépane-2,6-diones présentent un fort potentiel pour la recherche de molécules d’intérêt thérapeutique puisque le cycle est rigide, non-planaire et possède une bonne capacité de distribution des pharmacophores dans l’espace. Des molécules de cette famille présentent une activité inhibitrice modérée mais spécifique sur les phospholipases A2 secrétées humaines de type V et X. La recherche de nouveaux inhibiteurs de sPLA2 par une étude de relation structure/activité, par création d’une pince à calcium ou par simulation moléculaire a conduit à l’identification de nouveaux composés actifs. / The 1,3,5-triazepane-2,6-dione scaffold is a seven membered heterocycle derived from dipeptides and accessible in a four steps synthesis in solution. A parallel solid phase synthesis of this heterocycle was developed. This strategy, based on "catch and release" and cyclo-cleavage processes, had created a library containing more than one hundred compounds. To increase the diversity of 1,3,5-triazepane-2,6-dione moieties, some post-cyclisation modifications were performed, e.g. urea N-mono-alkylation or N,N-di-alkylation, acylation, and carbonyl thionation. Synthesis of larger cycles was also investigated and several macrocycles were obtained.The 1,3,5-triazepane-2,6-diones have a strong pharmacological interest, because their cycle is rigid, non-planar and can allow multiple presentation of pharmacophores in space. Some 1,3,5-triazepane-2,6-diones have shown a small but specific activity on the groups V and X of the human secreted phospholipases A2. Structure/activity relationships, clamp synthesis to bind calcium or virtual screening were the strategies used to identify new active compounds.

La chimie de clic est devenue indispensable dans les nombreux domaines de chimie associée à la conception de médicament. Dans ce contexte, comme nous savons(connaissons) l'étude concernant l'impact d'insertion triazole sur la conformation de peptaibol est limitée, nous avons conduit l'étude pour examiner l'impact et l'adaptabilité de 1, 1 4-disubstituted, 2, l'insertion 3-triazole dans peptaibols différent. Selon le résultat de cette expérience touchant à l'activité réduite et la conformation perturbée de l'analogue peptaibol, le substitut dipeptide décoré du fragment triazole portant substituents hydrophobe divers a été inséré à très N-ter la partie du peptaibol. L'amélioration du bioactivity et de la restauration de la conformation pour les analogues peptaibol a été observée et le fait a été aussi soutenu par les résultats obtenus de l'étude biophysique des analogues choisis d'ALM F50/5. Nous avons plus loin prolongé notre étude pour employer notre stratégie à être appliqué sur le peptide P42 thérapeutique qui souffre de la limitation de manque de perméabilité et de stabilité. Le peptide P42 est impliqué dans le pathophysiology de la maladie d'Huntington neurodégénératif. Un total de 12 analogues de peptide de P42-camelote a été synthétisé par SPPS par notre protocole optimize. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons développé une stratégie pour synthétiser lipopeptide cyclique produit de l'espèce cynaobacterial marine. Notre objectif principal était de synthétiser Hormothamnin A, undecapeptide cyclique consistant de plusieurs acides aminés artificiels incluant dehydroamino acide (Dhaa) qui fait la synthèse de ce peptide compliqué. En raison de cette raison, premièrement, nous avons voulu appliquer notre stratégie de synthétiser Trichormamide A, une sorte relativement plus simple de cylic lipopeptide. Après l'accomplissement de cette tâche, une première tentative a été faite pour synthétiser Hormothamnin A. Le résultat préliminaire de ceci est présenté dans cette section. Enfin, nous avons essayé de développer une méthodologie robuste pour synthétiser Fmoc-Dhaa dans la phase de solution et son insertion dans l'ordre peptaibol par une norme(un standard) SPPS le protocole. Les résultats préliminaires que nous avons concernant la synthèse Dhaa et son insertion dans peptaibol sont aussi discutés ici de plus avec la synthèse de phase solide de Bergofungin naturel D. / The click chemistry has become indispensible in the many areas of chemistry associated with drug design. In this context, as we know the study concerning the impact of triazole insertion on the conformation of peptaibol is limited, we have conducted the study to investigate the impact and adaptability of the 1, 4-disubstituted 1, 2, 3-triazole insertion into different peptaibols. Depending on the outcome of this experiment relating to reduced activity and perturbed conformation of the peptaibol analogue, the dipeptide surrogate decorated with the triazole moiety bearing various hydrophobic substituents was inserted at the very N-ter part of the peptaibol. The improvement of the bioactivity and restoration of the conformation for the peptaibol analogues was observed and the fact was also supported by the results obtained from the biophysical study of the selected analogues of ALM F50/5. We have further extended our study to employ our strategy to be applied on the therapeutic P42 peptide which suffers from the limitation of lack of permeability and stability. P42 peptide is involved in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative Huntington’s disease. A total of 12 analogues of P42-TAT peptide were synthesized through SPPS by our optimized protocol. In the second part, we have developed a strategy for synthesizing the cyclic lipopeptide originated from marine cynaobacterial species. Our main objective was to synthesize Hormothamnin A, a cyclic undecapeptide consisting of several unnatural amino acids including dehydroamino acid (Dhaa) which makes the synthesis of this peptide complicated. Due to this reason, firstly, we have chosen to apply our strategy to synthesize Trichormamide A, a relatively simpler kind of cylic lipopeptide. After accomplishing this task, a first attempt was made to synthesize Hormothamnin A. The preliminary result of this is presented in this section. At last, we have tried to develop a robust methodology to synthesize Fmoc-Dhaa in solution phase and its insertion into the peptaibol sequence through a standard SPPS protocol. The preliminary results we have got concerning the Dhaa synthesis and its insertion into peptaibol are also discussed here in addition with the solid phase synthesis of natural Bergofungin D

A cruzaína é a principal cisteíno protease encontrada no parasito Trypanosoma cruzi, o agente etiológico da Doença de Chagas. A enzima é essencial para o desenvolvimento e sobrevivência do parasito dentro do hospedeiro e possui uma excelente validação pré-clínica como alvo susceptível à ação de fármacos. Várias classes de inibidores peptídicos reversíveis e irreversíveis, baseados no estado de transição, inibem efetivamente a cruzaína. No entanto, a maioria destes inibidores ainda não apresenta perfis farmacodinâmicos/farmacocinéticos adequados e/ou estão relacionados com potenciais efeitos fora do alvo (do inglês, off-target). Com o objetivo de encontrar inibidores mais eficientes e seletivos, foi aplicado uma abordagem de planejamento de ligantes baseada em hipótese, combinando quiminformática, síntese orgânica, ensaios bioquímicos e determinação do modo de interação para validar os compostos planejados como inibidores de cruzaína. Neste trabalho, é mostrado um conjunto de dipeptidil-nitrilas que foram sintetizadas e avaliadas com base nestes métodos para investigar as interações nos subsítios S1, S2 e S3 de cruzaína. Nossos resultados demonstram o sucesso da abordagem aplicada que resultou na identificação de vários inibidores da cruzaína em concentrações que chegam a sub-micromolar. Alguns dos compostos dessa classe de dipeptidil-nitrilas também são agentes tripanossomicidas por apresentar concentrações efetivas com formas infectivas do T. cruzi em baixo micromolar. / Cruzain is the major cysteine protease found in the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. The enzyme is essential for the development and survival of the parasite within host cells, having excellent pre-clinical validation evidence as a druggable target. Several classes of peptide inhibitors including transition state-based reversible and irreversible ones effectively inhibit cruzain. However, most of these inhibitors still have poor PK/PD profiles and are related with potential off target effects. In order to find more efficient and selective inhibitors, we have applied the hypothesis driven ligand design approach, combining cheminformatics, organic synthesis, biochemical assays and mode of binding determination to validate the designed compounds as cruzain inhibitors. Here, we show a set of dipeptidyl nitriles that were synthetized and evaluated based on these methods to probe interactions at S1, S2 and S3 pockets of cruzain binding site. Our results unveil the success of the applied approach that yielded in the identification of several cruzain inhibitors at sub-micromolar concentrations. Some of the compounds of this class of dipeptidyl nitriles are also trypanocidal agents with effective concentrations in the low micromolar range against infective forms of T. cruzi.

This thesis describes the use of chiral counter-ions for the enantiomeric separation of amines in non-aqueous capillary electrophoresis. The investigations have been concentrated on studies of the influence, of the chiral counter-ion, the solvent, the electrolyte and the analyte, on the enantioselective separation. Modified divalent dipeptides have been introduced in capillary electrophoresis for the separation of amino alcohols and chiral resolution of amines. Association constants for the ion-pair between dipeptide and amino alcohol could be utilized for development of separation systems with higher amino alcohol selectivity. Chiral discrimination (ion-pair formation) between the dipeptides and amines are preferably generated in non-aqueous background electrolytes (BGEs). The amount of triethylamine in the BGE determined the dipeptide charge and a divalent dipeptide promoted higher enantioselectivity than a monovalent dipeptide. An N-terminal-end blocking group and glutamic acid at the C-terminal-end of the dipeptide was important for chiral separation of the amines. Chemometric and univariate methods have been employed for evaluation of suitable solvent compositions in the BGE. An experimental design including a single solvent as well as binary, ternary and quaternary mixtures of polar organic solvents, showed that optimal enantioresolution was obtained with an ethanol:methanol 80:20 mixture in the BGE.  Furthermore, water was found to have an adverse influence on enantioselectivity and no enantioresolution was obtained with BGEs containing more than 30 % water. An alkali metal hydroxide added to the BGE affected the chiral separation by competing ion-pair formation with the selector. The electroosmosis was reduced in order of decreasing alkali metal ion solvated radius and became anodic using K, Rb or Cs in ethanolic BGEs. The correlation between the amino alcohol structure and the enantioselectivity was investigated using chemometrics. The obtained models showed that enantioselectivity for the amino alcohols was promoted by e.g. degree of substitution and substituent size on the nitrogen.

A cruzaína é a principal cisteíno protease encontrada no parasito Trypanosoma cruzi, o agente etiológico da Doença de Chagas. A enzima é essencial para o desenvolvimento e sobrevivência do parasito dentro do hospedeiro e possui uma excelente validação pré-clínica como alvo susceptível à ação de fármacos. Várias classes de inibidores peptídicos reversíveis e irreversíveis, baseados no estado de transição, inibem efetivamente a cruzaína. No entanto, a maioria destes inibidores ainda não apresenta perfis farmacodinâmicos/farmacocinéticos adequados e/ou estão relacionados com potenciais efeitos fora do alvo (do inglês, off-target). Com o objetivo de encontrar inibidores mais eficientes e seletivos, foi aplicado uma abordagem de planejamento de ligantes baseada em hipótese, combinando quiminformática, síntese orgânica, ensaios bioquímicos e determinação do modo de interação para validar os compostos planejados como inibidores de cruzaína. Neste trabalho, é mostrado um conjunto de dipeptidil-nitrilas que foram sintetizadas e avaliadas com base nestes métodos para investigar as interações nos subsítios S1, S2 e S3 de cruzaína. Nossos resultados demonstram o sucesso da abordagem aplicada que resultou na identificação de vários inibidores da cruzaína em concentrações que chegam a sub-micromolar. Alguns dos compostos dessa classe de dipeptidil-nitrilas também são agentes tripanossomicidas por apresentar concentrações efetivas com formas infectivas do T. cruzi em baixo micromolar. / Cruzain is the major cysteine protease found in the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. The enzyme is essential for the development and survival of the parasite within host cells, having excellent pre-clinical validation evidence as a druggable target. Several classes of peptide inhibitors including transition state-based reversible and irreversible ones effectively inhibit cruzain. However, most of these inhibitors still have poor PK/PD profiles and are related with potential off target effects. In order to find more efficient and selective inhibitors, we have applied the hypothesis driven ligand design approach, combining cheminformatics, organic synthesis, biochemical assays and mode of binding determination to validate the designed compounds as cruzain inhibitors. Here, we show a set of dipeptidyl nitriles that were synthetized and evaluated based on these methods to probe interactions at S1, S2 and S3 pockets of cruzain binding site. Our results unveil the success of the applied approach that yielded in the identification of several cruzain inhibitors at sub-micromolar concentrations. Some of the compounds of this class of dipeptidyl nitriles are also trypanocidal agents with effective concentrations in the low micromolar range against infective forms of T. cruzi.

The lumen-to-cell transport, cellular accumulation, and toxicity of ionic cadmium (109Cd2+) and cadmium-cysteine conjugate (Cys-S-109Cd-S-Cys) were studied in isolated perfused S2 segments of the proximal tubule of the rabbit kidney. All perfusion solutions were HEPES buffered and contained 3H-L-glucose which functioned as a volume and leak marker along with 250 nM FD & C Green dye as a vital dye. When ionic cadmium, 0.73µM Cd2+, or 0.73µM cadmium-cysteine conjugate (Cys-S-109Cd-S-Cys) containing solution was perfused through the lumen of the tubule there was no visual evidence of toxicity such as blebbing of the luminal membrane, cellular vital dye uptake, and cellular swelling. Ionic Cd2+ transport was temperature dependent (87% reduction at 22°C and 100% at 11°C) and inhibited by FeCl2 (42% reduction at 10µM) and ZnCl2 (48% reduction at 20µM), and high Ca2+ concentrations (27% reduction at 1.95mM and 69% at 2.6mM). The ionic Cd2+ transport was not affected by verapamil and diltiazem. The cadmium conjugate (Cys-S-Cd-S-Cys) transport was also temperature dependent (76% reduction at 22°C and 100% at 11°C) and inhibited by the amino acids L-cystine and L-arginine (55% and 50% respectively), stimulated by L-methionine (56%), but not affected by L-aspartate, L-glutamate and Gly-Sar. 2, 3-Dimercaptopropane-1-Sulfonate (DMPS) co-perfused with Cd2+ decreased absorption of 20µM Cd2+ (39% reduction at 30 µM and 94.6% reduction at 200 µM), while DMPS added to the bathing solution has no effect on the luminal transport of Cd2+. DMPS co-perfused with 20 µM Cys-S-Cd-S-Cys substantially reduced Cd2+ transport (62% reduction at 30 µM). We conclude that cadmium can be transported at the luminal membrane of the S2 segment of the proximal tubule by multiple mechanisms, depending on the form which it is presented to membrane. Ionic cadmium appears to be transported by iron (DCT1), zinc (ZTL1) transporters and some kind of calcium-selective channel while cadmium conjugate of L-cysteine appears to be transported by L-cystine transporters (system b0+). Dipeptide transporter is not involved in the transport of cadmium. DMPS appears to be a chelator for cadmium.

Ribosome Inactivating Proteins (RIPs) are protein or glycoprotein toxins that bring about the arrest of protein synthesis by directly interacting with and inactivating the ribosomes. Such toxins are in general, of plant origin and differ from bacterial toxins that inhibit protein synthesis by mechanisms other than ribosome inactivation. After the toxins had been in the centre of interest in biomedical research for a couple of decades in the end of 19th century, the scientific community largely lost interest in the plant toxins. Interest in these toxins was revived when it was found that they are more toxic to tumor cells when compared to normal cells. Based on their structure RIPs can be classified into three types: Type I RIPs – They consist exclusively of a single RNA-N-glycosidase chain of ~30kDa. Type II RIPs – They consists of chain-A comparable to type I RIPs linked by a disulfide bridge to an unrelated chain-B, which has carbohydrate binding activity. The molecular weight of the type II RIPs is ~60kDa. Type III RIPs – Besides the classical type II RIPs a 60kDa RIP (called JIP60) has been identified in barley (Hordeum vulgare) that consists of chain-A resembling type I RIPs linked to an unrelated chain-B with unknown function. In addition to these classes of RIPs there is another group of toxins called four subunit toxins, whose structure is almost similar to type II RIPs, but are made up of two such subunits linked by non-covalent interactions forming tetramers having two A- and two B-chains. The definition and classification of these toxins is not so clear as they are frequently referred to as agglutinins or lectins (e.g Abrus precatorius agglutinins I and II, Ricinus communis agglutinin etc.), having red blood cell (RBC) agglutinating activity. However they have been found to be less toxic and better agglutinins when compared with type II RIPs. The present thesis reports the crystal structure of a type II RIP, Abrus precatorius agglutinin-I (APA-I) from the seeds of Abrus precatorius plant. The protein was purified from the plant seed and crystallized. The crystal structure was solved by molecular replacement method. Preliminary crystals of abrus agglutinin were obtained almost thirty years ago and unsuccessful attempts to solve the crystal Structure of APA-I were made almost five years ago by other groups. The structure solution of API-I was obtained at 3.5 Å using synchrotron data set collected at room temperature from a single crystal. Crystal structure is already known for Abrin, another type II RIP isolated from the same seeds. Abrin and APA-I have similar therapeutic indices for the treatment of experimental mice with tumors, but APA-I has much lower toxicity, with lethal dose (LD50) being 5mg/kg of body weight when compared with Abrin-a (LD50 = 20 μg/kg of body weight). The striking difference in the toxicity shown by Abrin and its agglutinin (APA-I) encouraged us to look at the structure function relationship of these proteins, which might prove to be useful in the design and construction of immunotoxins. As apparent from the comparative study, the reduced toxicity of APA-I can be attributed to fewer interactions it can possibly have with the substrate due to the presence of Pro199 at the binding site and not due to any kink formed in the helix due to the presence of praline as reported by other groups. In recent years, these plant RIPs which inhibit protein synthesis have become a subject of intense investigation not only because of the possible role played by them in synthesizing immunotoxins that are used in cancer therapy but also because they serve as model system for studying the molecular mechanism of transmembrane translocation of proteins. In silico docking studies were carried out in search of inhibitors that could modulate the toxicity of RIPs. Many adenine like ringed compounds were studied in order to identify them as novel inhibitors of Abrin-a molecule and facilitate detailed analyis of protein ligand complex in various ways to ascertain their potential as ligands. In addition, the structural analysis of conformationally constrained, α β-dehydrophenylalanine containing dipeptides is carried out. While there are several studies of molecular self assembly of peptides containing coded amino acids, not much work has been done on molecular assembly formation utilizing non-coded amino acids. The non-coded amino acid used in the analysis is a member of α β-dehydroamino acids. These are the derivatives of protein amino acids with a double bond between Cα And Cβ atoms and are represented by a prefix symbol ‘Δ’. They are frequently found in natural peptides of microbial and fungal origins. The presence of α , β-dehydroamino acid residues in bioactive peptides confers altered bioactivity as well as an increased resistance to enzymatic degradation. Thus, α, β-dehydroamino acid residues, in particular α, β-dehydrophenylalaine(ΔPhe) has become one of the most promising residues in the study of structure-activity relationships of biologically important peptides. The utilization of in the molecular self assembly ΔPhe in the molecular self assembly offers in added benfit in terms of variey and stability. Taking advantage of the conformation constraining property of the ΔPhe residue, its incorporation in three dipeptide molecules has been probed. In this thesis the crystal structures of the following designed dipeptide are reported.(I). +H3N-Phe-ΔPhe-COO˙ (FΔF); (II). +H3N-Val-ΔPhe- COO˙ (VΔF); +H3N-Ala-ΔPhe-COO˙ (AΔF). The peptides were found to be in the zwitterionic conformation and two (I, II) of the three dipeptides have resulted in tubular structures of dimensions in the nanoscale range. Chapter 1 starts with a brief introduction of RIPs, their classification and overall fold, with Abrin-a as example. A brief mention is made about how the protein is translocated in the cell and the depurination mechanism. Chapter 2 presents the purification of APA-I from the seeds of Abrus precatorius plant, the crystallization of APA-I, X-ray intensity data collection on these crystals and processing of data sets for APA-I. Chapter 3 details the structure determination of tetramer Abrus precatorius agglutinin-I,(APA-I), using the molecular replacement method, iterative model building and refinement and the quality of final protein structure model. Chapter 4 details the crystal structure of Abrus precatorius agglutinin-I (APA-I), the comparison of primary and secondary structure of APA-I with Abrin-a and the structural insights into the reduced toxicity in relation to Abrin-a and future prospects. Chapter 5 deals with the in-silico modeling of Abrin-a inhibitors using the docking method. Abrin-a is being tested extensively for the design of therapeutic immunotoxins. Chapter 6 deals with the self-assembly of dipeptides containing conformationally constrained amino acid, α. β -dehydrophenylalanine (ΔF).

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / O cristal dipeptÃdeo L-Alanil-L-alanina (Ala-Ala) foi estudado atravÃs da tÃcnica de espalhamento Raman polarizado submetido a deformaÃÃes homogÃneas. Os cristais foram crescidos pela tÃcnica de evaporaÃÃo lenta a partir de uma soluÃÃo aquosa supersaturada do pà do cristal. Medidas de raios-x foram realizadas para confirmar a estrutura cristalina do cristal. Foram realizadas medidas de espalhamento Raman polarizado a temperatura ambiente, bem como anÃlise da teoria de grupos para o grupo fator C4 juntamente com uma classificaÃÃo exploratÃria dos modos normais de vibraÃÃo do cristal. As medidas de espalhamento Raman foram realizadas em baixas temperaturas, entre 300 K e 11 K e 11 K e 300 K, e altas temperaturas, entre 300 K e 520 K e 520 K e 300 K, na regiÃo espectral de 50 a 3300 cm-1. Da anÃlise dos resultados das medidas de baixas temperaturas foi possÃvel concluir que o cristal exibe uma transiÃÃo de fase de segunda ordem, entre 80 e 60 K, passando continuamente da estrutura tetragonal com grupo fator C4 para uma estrutura monoclÃnica com grupo fator C2 mantendo o mesmo nÃmero de molÃculas na cÃlula primitiva. O mecanismo proposto para explicar a transiÃÃo de fase à a ocupaÃÃo de sÃtios de simetria C1 nÃo equivalentes pelos Ãons moleculares CH3 numa estrutura monoclÃnica pertencente ao grupo fator C2. O cristal manteve-se estÃvel em todo o intervalo de alta temperatura estudado. Nestas experiÃncias foram observadas apenas mudanÃas quantitativas nas frequÃncias e larguras de linha dos modos Raman estudados, que à normal para qualquer material submetido a variaÃÃes de temperaturas da ordem de 220 K. Medidas de espalhamento polarizado no cristal de Ala â Ala no intervalo de pressÃo entre 0,1 GPa e 6,3 GPa, na compressÃo, e de 6,3 GPa e 0,1 GPa, na descompressÃo, na regiÃo espectral de 100 cm-1 a 3400 cm-1 mostraram dois intervalos de pressÃo em que ocorrem diversas mudanÃas qualitativas; o primeiro entre 1,7 GPa e 2,3 GPa e o segundo entre 4,5 GPa e 4,9 GPa. Entre 1,7 GPa e 2,3 GPa foram observadas mudanÃas qualitativas significantes na regiÃo dos modos externos, tais como, o desaparecimento de um modo da rede em torno de 130 cm-1 e o comportamento anÃmalo de outro modo da rede em torno de 110 cm-1 para pressÃo de 1,7 GPa. Estas mudanÃas qualitativas sugerem que o cristal exibe uma transiÃÃo de fase estrutural de segunda ordem. As outras regiÃes do espectro Raman do cristal apresentaram diversas mudanÃas qualitativas continuas no comportamento dos modos Raman das unidades que participam diretamente das pontes de hidrogÃnio, indicando que o cristal apresenta reorientaÃÃes espaciais dos grupos moleculares CO2, CH3 e NH3. Estas mudanÃas qualitativas caracterizam uma transiÃÃo de fase estrutural de segunda ordem. As principais mudanÃas qualitativas observadas entre 4,5 GPa e 5,2 GPa sÃo o desaparecimento dos modos externos e, quantitativamente, um grande aumento na largura de linha dos modos Raman indicando que o cristal exibe uma desordem na estrutura cristalina durante a transiÃÃo de fase de altas pressÃes, possivelmente uma amorfizaÃÃo. Na descompressÃo da amostra os espectros Raman sÃo quase que totalmente recuperados na sua forma inicial indicando que o cristal apresenta transiÃÃes de fase reversÃveis. / The dipeptide L-Alanyl â L-Alanine crystal was studied through polarized Raman scattering submitted to homogeneous deformations. The crystals were grown by slow evaporation technique from an aqueous supersaturated solution of the crystal powder. Rays-x diffractions measurements were realized to confirm a crystalline structure of the crystal. Polarized Raman scattering measurements were performed at room temperature, as well as the analysis of the group theory to the C4 factor group and a tentative assignment of the vibrational modes of crystal. Raman scattering measurements in the crystals as a function of temperature were realized between two intervals of temperature: first, at low temperature between 300 K and 11 K e 11 K and 300 K, and second, at high temperature between 300 K e 520 K and 520 K e 300 K, in the spectral range of 50 cm-1 to 3400 cm-1. From the results of low temperature measurements, it was possible to conclude that the crystal undergoes a second-order phase transition between 80 K and 60 K, from a tetragonal structure with C4 factor group to a monoclinic structure with C2 factor group, maintaining the same number of the molecules per primitive cell. The suggested mechanism to explain the phase transition is the occupation of non-equivalent sites by CH3 molecular groups present at Ala-Ala molecule. On the other hand, the crystal remained stable in the high temperature range studied, and the changes observed in the Raman spectra showed no evidence that the Ala-Ala crystal undergone phase transition or changes in molecule conformation. In those experiments were observed only quantitative changes in frequency and widths of the Raman modes, which are normal for any material subjected to variations in temperatures around 220 K. Raman scattering measurements in the crystals as a function of pressure in the pressure range between 0,1 GPa and 6,3 GPa, in compression and of 6,3 GPa and 0,1 GPa, in decompression, in the spectral region between 100 cm-1 and 3400 cm-1 showed two ranges where several qualitative changes occurred; the first, in low pressure interval between 1.7 GPa and 2.3 GPa and the second, at high pressure interval, between 4.5 GPa and 4.9 GPa. Between 1.7 GPa and 2.3 GPa, it was observed qualitative changes as well as the disappearance of an external mode around of 130 cm-1 and the anomalous behavior of other external mode around of 110 cm-1 for pressures of the order of 1,7 GPa. These qualitative changes suggest that the crystal exhibits a second order structural phase transition. Qualitative changes also were observed in others regions of the Raman spectrum through of special reorientation of the molecular groups CO2, CH3 and NH3. These qualitative changes characterize a structural second order phase transition. The mains qualitative changes observed between 4,5 GPa and 5,2 GPa were the disappearance of the external modes and the an large increasing of the width of the Raman modes, suggesting that the crystal exhibits a structural disorder in the crystalline structure when undergoes a phase transition for high pressures, possibly a amorphization. When performing decompression of the sample, the Raman spectrum returns to its initial form relative to pressure of 0,1 GPa indicating reversibility of phase transitions.

Entre os PRRs (receptores de reconhecimento padrão), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), tal como NOD2, são responsáveis pela detecção intracelular de muramil dipeptídeo (MDP); padrão molecular associado a patógeno (PAMP), encontrado no peptidoglicano (PGN) de praticamente todas bactérias GRAM positiva e negativa. Após o reconhecimento e estimulação por MDP, NOD2 recruta diretamente a serina-treonina quinase RIPK2, uma proteína adaptadora importante na ativação de NF?B mediada por NOD2. A expressão de NOD2 foi descrita em macrófagos e em outras células. Além disso, trabalhos anteriores indicaram que PRRs desempenham papel crucial na ativação de células gliais da medula espinal, na indução e manutenção da dor inflamatória crônica e dor neuropática. No presente estudo, avaliamos o papel de NOD2 na modulação da sensibilidade à dor, focando sua importância na ativação de células da glia da medula espinal, bem como a sua via de sinalização (RIPK2) e liberação de citocinas pró-nociceptivas, como o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-?), interleucina-6 (IL-6) e interleucina-1 beta (IL-1?). Os resultados demonstram que camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico (pico entre 3 e 5 horas) comparado com o grupo controle (veículo), retornando ao basal após 48 horas. Além disso, camundongos NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- e IL-6 -/- tratados com MDP não diferiram o limiar nociceptivo mecânico, comparado com seus respectivos grupos controle (veículo). Entretanto, camundongos TNFR1- /- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- e TRIF-/- tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico similar aos camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP. Adicionalmente, o pré-tratamento de camundongos selvagens com IL-1ra, propentofilina, minociclina, fluorocitrato e SB 203580 inibiu o desenvolvimento da hipersensibilidade mecânica induzida por MDP. Estes dados sugerem que a ativação do sensor intracellular NOD2 esta presente em células da glia da medula espinal e estimula a ativação das vias de sinalização RIPK2 e p38 MAPK com subsequente produção de IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF?, por uma via de sinalização independente de TLR4, MyD88 e TRIF. Finalmente, estes mecanismos contribuem para o processo de hipersensibilidade mecânica durante a neuropatia periférica e representam uma nova abordagem para elucidar os mecanismos envolvidos na fisiopatologia da dor crônica. / Among PRRs (pattern recognition receptors), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), such as NOD2 are responsible by intracellular detection of muramyl dipeptide (MDP); pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) found in the peptidoglycan (PGN) from virtually all gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Upon recognition and stimulation by MDP, NOD2 recruits directly the receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), an adaptor protein important in the NOD2-mediated NF?B activation. The expression of NOD2 has been described in macrophages and other cells. Moreover, previous work has indicated that PRRs play a crucial role in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, in the induction and maintenance of chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the role of NOD2 in the modulation of pain sensitivity, focusing on its importance in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, as well as its signaling pathway (RIPK2) and release of pro-nociceptive cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-?), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1?). The results demonstrate that WT mice treated with MDP showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold (peak 3 to 5 hours) compared with the control group (vehicle), returning to the base line after 48 hours. Furthermore, NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- and IL-6 -/- mice treated with MDP did not differ the mechanical nociceptive threshold compared with their respective control groups (vehicle). However, TNFR1-/- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- and TRIF-/- mice treated MDP, showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold similar to WT mice treated with MDP. In addition, the pretreatment of WT mice with IL-1ra, propentofylline, minocycline, fluorocitrate and SB 203580 inhibited the development of mechanical hypersensitivity induced by MDP. These data suggest that activation of the intracellular sensor NOD2 present in spinal cord glial cells stimulates the activation of RIPK2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways and subsequent production of IL-1?, IL-6 and TNF?, in a TLR4-, MyD88- and TRIF-independent signaling pathway. Finally, these mechanisms contribute to the process of mechanical hypersensitivity during peripheral neuropathy and represent a novel approach for elucidating the mechanisms underlying pathophysiology of chronic pain.

Entre os PRRs (receptores de reconhecimento padrão), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), tal como NOD2, são responsáveis pela detecção intracelular de muramil dipeptídeo (MDP); padrão molecular associado a patógeno (PAMP), encontrado no peptidoglicano (PGN) de praticamente todas bactérias GRAM positiva e negativa. Após o reconhecimento e estimulação por MDP, NOD2 recruta diretamente a serina-treonina quinase RIPK2, uma proteína adaptadora importante na ativação de NF?B mediada por NOD2. A expressão de NOD2 foi descrita em macrófagos e em outras células. Além disso, trabalhos anteriores indicaram que PRRs desempenham papel crucial na ativação de células gliais da medula espinal, na indução e manutenção da dor inflamatória crônica e dor neuropática. No presente estudo, avaliamos o papel de NOD2 na modulação da sensibilidade à dor, focando sua importância na ativação de células da glia da medula espinal, bem como a sua via de sinalização (RIPK2) e liberação de citocinas pró-nociceptivas, como o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-?), interleucina-6 (IL-6) e interleucina-1 beta (IL-1?). Os resultados demonstram que camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico (pico entre 3 e 5 horas) comparado com o grupo controle (veículo), retornando ao basal após 48 horas. Além disso, camundongos NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- e IL-6 -/- tratados com MDP não diferiram o limiar nociceptivo mecânico, comparado com seus respectivos grupos controle (veículo). Entretanto, camundongos TNFR1- /- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- e TRIF-/- tratados com MDP, apresentaram diminuição no limiar nociceptivo mecânico similar aos camundongos selvagens tratados com MDP. Adicionalmente, o pré-tratamento de camundongos selvagens com IL-1ra, propentofilina, minociclina, fluorocitrato e SB 203580 inibiu o desenvolvimento da hipersensibilidade mecânica induzida por MDP. Estes dados sugerem que a ativação do sensor intracellular NOD2 esta presente em células da glia da medula espinal e estimula a ativação das vias de sinalização RIPK2 e p38 MAPK com subsequente produção de IL-1?, IL-6 e TNF?, por uma via de sinalização independente de TLR4, MyD88 e TRIF. Finalmente, estes mecanismos contribuem para o processo de hipersensibilidade mecânica durante a neuropatia periférica e representam uma nova abordagem para elucidar os mecanismos envolvidos na fisiopatologia da dor crônica. / Among PRRs (pattern recognition receptors), NOD-like receptors (NLRs), such as NOD2 are responsible by intracellular detection of muramyl dipeptide (MDP); pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) found in the peptidoglycan (PGN) from virtually all gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Upon recognition and stimulation by MDP, NOD2 recruits directly the receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), an adaptor protein important in the NOD2-mediated NF?B activation. The expression of NOD2 has been described in macrophages and other cells. Moreover, previous work has indicated that PRRs play a crucial role in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, in the induction and maintenance of chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the role of NOD2 in the modulation of pain sensitivity, focusing on its importance in the activation of spinal cord glial cells, as well as its signaling pathway (RIPK2) and release of pro-nociceptive cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-?), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1?). The results demonstrate that WT mice treated with MDP showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold (peak 3 to 5 hours) compared with the control group (vehicle), returning to the base line after 48 hours. Furthermore, NOD2-/- , RIPK2-/- , TNFR1/2-/- and IL-6 -/- mice treated with MDP did not differ the mechanical nociceptive threshold compared with their respective control groups (vehicle). However, TNFR1-/- , CCR2-/- , TLR4-/- , MyD88-/- and TRIF-/- mice treated MDP, showed a decrease in mechanical nociceptive threshold similar to WT mice treated with MDP. In addition, the pretreatment of WT mice with IL-1ra, propentofylline, minocycline, fluorocitrate and SB 203580 inhibited the development of mechanical hypersensitivity induced by MDP. These data suggest that activation of the intracellular sensor NOD2 present in spinal cord glial cells stimulates the activation of RIPK2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways and subsequent production of IL-1?, IL-6 and TNF?, in a TLR4-, MyD88- and TRIF-independent signaling pathway. Finally, these mechanisms contribute to the process of mechanical hypersensitivity during peripheral neuropathy and represent a novel approach for elucidating the mechanisms underlying pathophysiology of chronic pain.