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For each decision we make, we must first determine the degree of effort that we are going to exert, and this can range from no effort to full effort. To select a reasoning strategy (e.g., withholding or exerting effort), it has been proposed that we must first integrate internal and external factors to compute the degree of effort necessary and solve the problem at hand. In this dissertation, I sought to determine the mechanisms underlying selecting such reasoning strategies by leveraging electroencephalographic imaging techniques. My investigations began by exploring neural correlates of effortful contemplation and evolved to test assumptions of prediction errors as it became apparent that they were an influential factor. I then tied this mechanism to the strategy selection phase of reasoning and cost-benefit computations. From these findings, I proposed that prediction errors of decision demands function to lessen or remove the burden of cost-benefit computations. Specifically, repeated encounters of the same or similar decisions provide an opportunity to develop expectations of the prospective costs and benefits of those judgments and these expectations facilitate the reasoning process. I consider two possible explanations as to how prediction errors may influence reasoning: first, our expectations provide our cost-benefit computations with a starting point to be adjusted if necessary, and second, our expectations act as a gating mechanism for cost-benefit computations. Although more research is needed to test these hypotheses, I hope my work provides grounds for advancing this field of study. / Graduate

Management control systems perform a vital role in facilitating the accomplishment of organizational objectives. To effectively align the objectives of employees with those of the organization, firms balance multiple control mechanisms to encourage organizationally desired behaviors and discourage undesired behaviors. The purpose of my dissertation was two-fold. First, I assessed how changes in monitoring frequency influenced employee behaviors and the overall function of the management control system. Second, I investigated the effects of stretch goals on behavior to determine whether stretch goals can lead to harmful behaviors and whether continuous monitoring can mitigate these behaviors. Results suggest that individuals exert more effort when assigned a stretch or difficult goal compared to an easy goal. My study also finds that stretch goals can be harmful because of their effect on risk taking, goal commitment, and job insecurity. Finally, results indicate that accountability mediates the monitoring frequency-risk taking relationship such that continuous monitoring increases accountability and accountability decreases risk taking. However, the ability of monitoring frequency to decrease risk taking may depend on numerous factors. Results from this study allow practitioners to understand the potential benefits and drawbacks of implementing continuous monitoring systems and the combined effects of using these systems in conjunction with compensation systems. Consequently, this study highlights necessary considerations for practitioners during the implementation continuous monitoring systems. The study also informs practitioners of the potentially harmful effects of stretch goals, the conditions under which they occur, and the possible ways to mitigate these effects.

Previous research presents a paradox in relation to the value of exerting personal control such that personal control is generally reinforcing, but its value may also be limited in some individuals and under certain circumstances. Across two studies, this dissertation takes a step towards exploring the limitations of perceived control at the process-level by manipulating perceived control via the provision of choice. Manuscript 1 examined limitations of perceived control in the context of effort costs and found that actual control, but not illusory control, may be necessary to enhance motivation in the context of physical effort, suggesting that perceived control may be limited in the context of effort. Manuscript 2 examined limitations of perceived control in relation to self-reported symptoms of anhedonia and found that responsivity to personal control was diminished in those with higher levels of anhedonia. Together these studies examined factors associated with limitations in appetitive personal control and suggest avenues for future research exploring perceived control processes and how they may interface with reward processes, which has potential implications for developing interventions to alleviate reward-related deficits found in anhedonia. / Doctor of Philosophy / Past research has shown that exerting personal control (actively influencing things in your life) is generally desired and motivating, but for some individuals and in some circumstances personal control may be less desirable or motivating (sometime people do not want to be in control). Across two studies, this dissertation explored why perceived control (the belief that one has influence over outcomes in one's life) might not be desired or motivating. In both studies, participants experienced perceived control during experiments when they were given choices within computerized games, believing themselves to have control over outcomes in the game. Manuscript 1 examined how perceived control may be less desirable when people must exert physical effort and found that people may be less inclined to believe they have control when their choice leads to a physical effort requirement. Manuscript 2 examined whether people want to be in control when they are experiencing anhedonia, a set of psychiatric symptoms that includes diminished motivation and reduced responses to reward (for example, paying less attention to rewards in the environment). This study found that people with anhedonia symptoms did not seem to want to be in control as much as psychologically healthy people. During the computerized game, people with anhedonia did not try to make their own choices when they had an opportunity to. Together these studies examined different factors associated with people not wanting to be in control or finding personal control less motivating. This research has implications for developing therapies for people with anhedonia, particularly symptoms related to not actively taking control.

The sea state changes that have occurred in the global security arena since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the demise of the Soviet Union dramatically transformed the U.S. interagency national security process. More recently, the tragic events of 9-11 have further refocused national security endeavors inward to homeland security imperatives while Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom have revalidated the need effective interagency coordination. This research represents a "first cut" at characterizing the construct of unity of effort in the interagency national security process by identifying attributes of this organizational virtue. The intent was to examine the dimensionality of the construct and thus facilitate theory building by consolidating extant knowledge and identifying key success factors as well as elements threatening operational success. This study focused on the interagency national security policy process and was intended to accommodate a wider understanding of unity of effort as it applies to that area of endeavor. Multiple interviews, focus groups, and surveys from 448 military and civilian adult respondents were used in the analysis. Content analysis, analysis of variance, and principle component analysis were the primary analytic methods used. The most conceptually sound factor structure for organizational unity of effort consisted of four factors: (a) Organizational Context and Interpersonal Dynamics, (b) Leadership and Decision Making Structure, (c) Strategic Orientation, and (d) Organizational Infrastructure and Resources. The detailed examination of this construct produced clearly acceptable internal reliability coefficients on all scales and relatively strong evidence of construct validity in the related factor analyses. Separate internal factor structures were investigated for two test groups drawn from the sample population. Although there was not perfect fidelity in the two derived factor structures, sufficient internal structures emerged that strongly validated the underlying factor structure for organizational unity of effort. This factor structure remained relatively stable when examined for selected demographic sub-groups drawn from the larger sample. The clear relationships of this factor construct revealed strong empirical support for a theoretical basis for the construct of organizational unity of effort. Moreover, the results of this study offer the potential for development of a simple and valid conceptualization of organizational unity of effort. It is hoped that this research serves to advance a conceptual framework that helps the interagency national security community evaluate unity of effort in the national security policy process and create new or reconfigure existing organizational entities in response to threats to U.S. national security. / Ph. D.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de mettre en avant le rôle de la psychologie dans les fluctuations de la production, de la redistribution et des inégalités. Notre travail s’articule autour de deux axes : i) l’importance de la psychologie à l’égard des inégalités dans la détermination des croyances des agents concernant le rôle de l’effort ii) l’impact de ces croyances sur les dynamiques des grandeurs économiques. L’objectif du premier chapitre est de présenter une revue de littérature sur la relation entre croyances et faits économiques. Au second chapitre, nous développons un modèle théorique, dans lequel nous introduisons une composante psychologique immuable dans les croyances des agents. Nous aboutissons à une explication d’ordre psychologique des disparités entre pays de la volatilité de la TFP, de la production, de la redistribution et des inégalités. Dans le troisième chapitre, nous vérifions, économétriquement, les implications du modèle. / The objective of this doctoral thesis is to put forth the role of psychology in the fluctuations of production, redistribution and inequalities. Our work is centered on two axes : i) the importance of psychology with regards to inequalities in determining individual beliefs about the role of effort ii) the impact of beliefs on the dynamics of economic aggregates. The objective of the first chapter is to provide a literature review on the relationship between beliefs and economic events. In the second chapter, we develop a theoretical model, in which we introduce an unchanging psychological component in individual beliefs. We end at an explanation, of a psychological nature, for cross-country disparities in TFP, production, redistribution and inequalities volatilities. In the third chapter, we provide an empirical verification of the model implications.

Efficient project planning and project management is crucial to complete the software projects in expected time and requirements. The most critical stage in project planning is estimation of the software size, time and budget. In this stage, effort data is used for benchmarking data sets, effort estimation, project monitoring and controlling. However, there are some problems related to effort data collection in the software industry. In this thesis, a pilot study and survey study are conducted to observe common practices and problems in effort data collection in the industry and results are analyzed. These problems are explained in terms of tool, process and people factors and solution suggestions are presented according to these problems. In accordance with the findings, a method and a tool which can facilitates to provide more accurate data are developed. A case study is performed in order to validate the method and applicability of the tool in the industry.

I denna studie behandlas effort shapes kopplat till digital animation med syfte att undersöka om det finns en könsbaserad skillnad i uppfattning och bedömning av karaktärsdrag. De animationer som har producerats är grundade på effort shapes som härstammar från Laban Movement Analysis. Metoden som har tillämpats för att samla in data är en kvalitativ enkät med öppna frågor som har besvarats av tio män samt tio kvinnor. Resultatet visade att det finns en skillnad mellan könen i bedömningen av karaktärerna men inte i uppfattningen av karaktärsdragen.