Application of corona ions produced in air to B16F10 murine melanoma cells in vitro and in animal models resulted in the transport of molecular therapeutics across the cell membrane. This work presents the development of new methods for drug and gene delivery based upon similar principles as the traditional electrode driven membrane destabilization processes known as electroporation. This was achieved with non-contact corona ion deposition that temporarily increased the permeability of cell membranes. Interaction of corona charge with biological cells was studied and their potential for molecular delivery was established. Molecular delivery was first demonstrated in vitro using tracer molecules followed by in vitro delivery of the cytotoxic drug bleomycin. Building upon these results, the delivery of bleomycin coincident with ion deposition was xxi shown to significantly slow the growth of very aggressive solid tumors in animal models, compared to drug alone or no treatment. Delivery of plasmid DNA to cells in the skin of animal models indicated that application of corona ions (both positive and negative) to live tissue produced a four to six fold increase in gene expression. As this is the first significant study of the interaction and impact of corona ions on the delivery of drug and plasmid DNA to biological cells, numerous fundamental investigations were performed and discussed. A charge dose dependence was observed and physical mechanistic models were proposed. A model of cell resealing time constant following corona ion exposure was developed and demonstrated a reasonable prediction of experimental findings. The foundation laid by this work may enable continued exploration and use of corona ion deposition in the future as a new and promising physical method for drug and gene delivery.

The recent breakthroughs in genomics and molecular diagnostics will not be reflected in health-care systems unless the biogenetic or other nucleic acid-based tests are transferred from the laboratory to clinical market. Developments in microfabrication techniques brought lab-on-a-chip (LOC) into being the best candidate for conducting sample preparation for such clinical devices, or point-of-care testing set-ups. Sample preparation procedure consists of several stages including cell transportation, separation, cell lysis and nucleic acid purification and detection. LOC, as a subset of Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), refers to a tiny, compact, portable, automated and easy-to-use microchip capable of performing the sample-preparation stages together. Complexity in micro-fabrications and inconsistency of the stages oppose integration of them into one chip. Among the variety of mechanisms utilized in LOC for cell lysis, electrical methods have the highest potential to be integrated with other microchip-based mechanisms. There are, however, major limitations in electrical cell lysis methods: the difficulty and high-cost fabrication of microfluidic chips and the high voltage requirements for cell lysis. Addressing these limitations, the focus of this thesis is on realization of cell lysis microchips suitable for LOC applications. We have developed a new methodology of fabricating microfluidic chips with electrical functionality. Traditional lithography of microchannel with electrode, needed for making electro-microfluidic chips, is considerably complicated. We have combined several easy-to-implement techniques to realize electro-microchannel with laser-ablated polyimide. The current techniques for etching polyimide are by excimer lasers in bulky set-ups and with involvement of toxic gas. We present a method of ablating microfluidic channels in polyimide using a 30W CO2 laser. Although this technique has poorer resolution, this approach is more cost effective, safer and easier to handle. We have verified the performance of the fabricated electro-microfluidic chips on electroporation of mammalian cells. Electrical cell lysis mechanisms need an operational voltage that is relatively high compared to other cell manipulation techniques, especially for lysing bacteria. Microelectro-devices have dealt with this limitation mostly by reducing the inter-distance of electrodes. The technique has been realized in tiny flow-through microchips with built-in electrodes in a distance of a few micrometers which is in the scale of cell size. In addition to the low throughput of such devices, high probability of blocking cells in such tiny channels is a serious challenge. We have developed a cell lysis device featured with aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) to reduce the high voltage requirement and to improve the throughput. The vertically aligned CNT on an electrode inside a MEMS device provides highly strengthened electric field near the tip. The concept of strengthened electric field by means of CNT has been applied in field electron emission but not in cell lysis. The results show that the incorporation of CNT in lysing bacteria reduces the required operational voltage and improves throughput. This achievement is a significant progress toward integration of cell lysis in a low-voltage, high-throughput LOC. We further developed the proposed fabrication methodology of micro-electro-fluidic chips, described earlier, to perform electroporation of single mammalian cell. We have advanced the method of embedding CNT in microchannel so that on-chip fluorescent microscopy is also feasible. The results verify the enhancement of electroporation by incorporating CNT into electrical cell lysis. In addition, a novel methodology of making CNT-embedded microfluidic devices has been presented. The embedding methodology is an opening toward fabrication of a CNT-featured LOC for other applications.

The use of high-voltage pulsed electric fields in biotechnology and medicine has lead to new methods of cancer treatment, gene therapy, drug delivery, and non-thermal inactivation of microorganisms. Regardless of the application, the objective is to open pores in the cell membrane and hence either facilitate the delivery of foreign materials inside the cell or to kill the cell completely. Pulsed power supplies are needed for electroporation, which is the process of applying pulsed electric fields to biological cells to induce a temporary permeability in the cell membrane. The applications of pulsed electric fields are dependent on the output pulse shape and pulse parameters, both of which can be affected by the circuit parameters of the pulsed power supply and the conductivity of the media being treated. <br /><br /> In this research, two Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)-based pulsed power supplies that are used for electroporation experiments were designed and built. The first used up to three MOSFETs in parallel to deliver high voltage pulses to highly conductive loads. To produce pulses with higher voltages, a second pulsed power supply using two MOSFETs connected in series was designed and built. The parallel and series MOSFET-based pulsed power supplies are capable of producing controllable square pulses with widths of a few hundred nanoseconds to dc and amplitudes up to 1500 V and 3000 V, respectively. The load in this study is a 1-mm electroporation cuvette filled with a buffer solution that is varied in conductivity from 0. 7 mS/m to 1000 mS/m. The results indicate that by controlling the circuit parameters such as the number of parallel MOSFETs, gate resistance, energy storage capacitance, and the parameters of the MOSFET driver gating pulses, the output pulse parameters can be made almost independent of the load conductivity. <br /><br /> Using the pulsed power supplies designed in this work, an investigation into electroporation-mediated delivery of a plasmid DNA molecule into the pathogenic bacterium <em>E. coli</em> O157:H7, was conducted. It was concluded that increasing the electric field strength and pulse amplitude resulted in an increase in the number of transformants. However, increasing the number of pulses had the effect of reducing the number of transformants. In all of the experiments the number of cells that were inactivated by the exposure to the pulsed electric field was measured.

The use of high-voltage pulsed electric fields in biotechnology and medicine has lead to new methods of cancer treatment, gene therapy, drug delivery, and non-thermal inactivation of microorganisms. Regardless of the application, the objective is to open pores in the cell membrane and hence either facilitate the delivery of foreign materials inside the cell or to kill the cell completely. Pulsed power supplies are needed for electroporation, which is the process of applying pulsed electric fields to biological cells to induce a temporary permeability in the cell membrane. The applications of pulsed electric fields are dependent on the output pulse shape and pulse parameters, both of which can be affected by the circuit parameters of the pulsed power supply and the conductivity of the media being treated. <br /><br /> In this research, two Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)-based pulsed power supplies that are used for electroporation experiments were designed and built. The first used up to three MOSFETs in parallel to deliver high voltage pulses to highly conductive loads. To produce pulses with higher voltages, a second pulsed power supply using two MOSFETs connected in series was designed and built. The parallel and series MOSFET-based pulsed power supplies are capable of producing controllable square pulses with widths of a few hundred nanoseconds to dc and amplitudes up to 1500 V and 3000 V, respectively. The load in this study is a 1-mm electroporation cuvette filled with a buffer solution that is varied in conductivity from 0. 7 mS/m to 1000 mS/m. The results indicate that by controlling the circuit parameters such as the number of parallel MOSFETs, gate resistance, energy storage capacitance, and the parameters of the MOSFET driver gating pulses, the output pulse parameters can be made almost independent of the load conductivity. <br /><br /> Using the pulsed power supplies designed in this work, an investigation into electroporation-mediated delivery of a plasmid DNA molecule into the pathogenic bacterium <em>E. coli</em> O157:H7, was conducted. It was concluded that increasing the electric field strength and pulse amplitude resulted in an increase in the number of transformants. However, increasing the number of pulses had the effect of reducing the number of transformants. In all of the experiments the number of cells that were inactivated by the exposure to the pulsed electric field was measured.

The pharmacologic treatment of painful neuropathy continues to pose problems and challenges in clinical practice. This is largely due to a limited understanding of the underlying etiologies of such neuropathic pain and insufficient knowledge of the optimal effective doses that would cause only minimal systemic side effects. The use of molecular methods, such as gene deletion from knockout mice and the development of cellular mini-pumps for the delivery of biologic antinociceptive molecules have led to a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in the induction of intractable neuropathic pain. It is now known that the initiation of an excitatory cascade after injury or disease leads to the induction of various second messenger systems, and the loss or down-regulation of the endogenous inhibitory spinal system and central sensitization, both of which cause such pain. Currently, there are novel approaches that use genetic therapy in the management of neuropathic pain. Two such approaches which have been determined to be safe are proposed to be investigated in this study using animal models of pain. The first approach involves cell-mediated delivery of antinociceptive molecules to the cerebrospinal fluid using cultivated spinal progenitor cells transplanted into the subarachnoid space. Chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve was used to induce chronic neuropathic pain in the hind paw of rats. 1x106 spinal progenitor cells (SPCs) were implanted intrathecally on the third day after the CCI surgery. The behavioral response to thermal hyperalgesia was observed and recorded during the 14 days post surgery. Various techniques were utilized to trace the progenitor cells, confirm the differentiation, and identify the neurotransmitters involved. Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) immunoreactivity was revealed for 65% of the cultivated SPCs in our study. We also determined that transplanted cells could survive more than four weeks post intrathecal implantation. Significant reductions were demonstrated for responses to thermal stimuli for the CCI rats that had received intrathecal SPC transplantation. A novel intrathecal delivery with SPCs reduced CCI-induced neuropathic pain. The second approach involves the use of a newly developed intrathecal electroporation probe in the delivery of antinociceptive peptides to reduce expression of endogenous nociceptive molecules in the spinal cord. To investigate the feasibility of delivering exogenous genes into spinal cord using direct in vivo electrotransfection, pE-GFP C1 vector was used to achieve the goal. Gene transfer to the spinal cord was accomplished via direct intrathecal injection of, followed by 5 electric pulses for 50 ms at 200 V delivered intrathecally. The spinal cords were retrieved and analyzed with fluorescence microscopy, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and western blotting. At day 1, 3 or 7 following electroporation a clear green fluorescence protein (GFP) expression in spinal cord tissue was detected. The most prominent transfection occurred in the meningeal cells and superficial layer of the spinal cord. Successful transfection was also confirmed with RT-PCR and western blotting. The expression of GFP protein was peaked between 3-7 days after electroporation and significantly decreased at 14 days. No behavioral or spinal neurodegenerative changes were detected at any time point. This study demonstrates that direct in vivo electrotransfection represents an effective and simple method for spinal gene delivery. Furthermore, the optimal pulse characteristics (voltage, pulse duration, number of shocks) were investigated for in vivo electroporation for gene transfer into the spinal cord. The expression of pre-opiomelanocortin (POMC) gene from electroporated plasmid DNA was then evaluated in this study using RT-PCR and western blot. We conclude that the optimal conditions for electroporation are a pulse voltage of 200 V, 75-ms duration, 925-ms interval, for five iterations. Also, electroporation treatment for neuropathic pain was attempted for CCI rats using plasmid DNA that expresses the POMC gene. Intrathecal administrations of the POMC plasmid elevated spinal beta-endorphin levels, as manifested in significantly elevated pain threshold for the CCI limbs. We also tested whether intrathecal electric stimulation would reduce the tolerance of chronic morphine usage and the severity of precipitated morphine withdrawal symptoms. Rats received intrathecal electrode catheter implantation and a continuous intrathecal infusion of morphine (2 nmol/hr) or saline for seven days. Intrathecal electric stimulations (0, 20V, 200V) were performed once daily during the same period. Daily tail flick and intrathecal morphine challenge tests were performed to assess the effect of intrathecal electric stimulation on antinociception and tolerance of morphine. Naloxone withdrawal (2mg/kg) was performed to assess morphine dependence, and changes in spinal neurotransmitters were monitored by microdialysis. The antinoceptive effect of intrathecal morphine was increased by 200V electric stimulation. The magnitude of tolerance was decreased in the rats receiving 2 nmol/hr infusion with daily intrathecal electric stimulation. The severity of naloxone-induced withdrawal symptom was lower in the rats receiving 200V stimulation. Intrathecal stimulation thus enhances analgesia and attenuates naloxone-induced withdrawal symptoms in rats receiving chronic intrathecal morphine infusion. Increases in spinal glycine release may be the underlying mechanisms. The promise is that, both approaches attenuate or reverse persistent nociceptive states; they could be exploited for use in the development of gene therapy for the management of pain.

Electroporation is a methodology for the introduction of drugs and genes into cells. This technique works by reducing the exclusionary nature of the cell membrane [125, 129, 186, 189]. Electroporation has successfully been used in electrochemotherapy and electrogenetherapy [57, 68, 86, 87, 110, 112, 131]. The two major components of electroporation are an induced transmembrane potential and the motion of the deliverable through a compromised cell membrane into the target cell [38, 55, 62, 114, 131]. These two components are both dependent on the electrophoretic motion of charged species in an applied electric field [45, 64, 75, 77, 177]. Currently, the methods outlined for understanding electroporation have been focused on either a phenomenological perspective, e.g. what works, or modeling the electric fieldstrength in certain regions [12, 56, 87, 129, 146, 204, 205]. While this information is necessary for the clinician and the laboratory scientist, it doesn't expand the understanding of how electric field mediated drug and gene delivery works or EFMDGD. To increase the understanding of EFMDGD, new models are required that predict the motion of ions and deliverables through tissues to target areas [75, 77]. This document examines the design and creation of an electric field mediated drug and gene delivery model, EFMDGDM. Two example scenarios, ionic motion in tissues and gel electrophoresis, are examined in depth using the EFMDGDM. The model requires tuning for each scenario but only utilizes experimental parameters and one tunable parameter that is computed from regressed experimental data. The EFMDGDM successfully describes the two examples. Future work will incorporate the EFMDGDM as the backbone of an electric field mediated drug and gene delivery modeling package, EFMDGDMP.

HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR) catalyzes the rate controlling step in cholesterol production. This enzyme is highly expressed in the liver where it is subject to extensive hormonal and dietary regulation. This study was undertaken to examine the occupancy and function of the hepatic HMGR promoter in regards to insulin and sterol regulation. HMGR protein and mRNA are substantially decreased in diabetic animals and rapidly restored by administration of insulin. Nuclear run-on assays revealed that HMGR transcription was substantially reduced in the diabetic rats, and fully restored within two hours after insulin treatment. In vivo footprinting revealed several areas of protein binding as shown by dimethyl sulfate protection or enhancement. The CRE was heavily protected in all conditions - including diabetes, cholesterol feeding, or statin treatment. Striking enhancements in footprints from diabetic animals were observed at -142 and at -161 (in the SRE). Protections at a newly ident ified NF-Y site at -70/-71 were seen in normal animals, and not in diabetics. This proximal NF-Y site was found to be required for efficient HMGR transcription. CREB-1 was able to bind the HMGR CRE in vitro, and to the promoter in vivo. The data supports an essential role for CREB in transcription of hepatic HMGR, and identifies at least two sites where in vivo occupancy is regulated by insulin. The technique of in vivo electroporation was utilized to perform the first functional analysis of the HMGR promoter in live animals. Analysis of a series of deletion constructs showed that deletion of the region containing the cyclic AMP response element (CRE) at -104 to -96 and the newly identified NF-Y site at -70 resulted in marked reduction of promoter activity. Possible sterol regulation of the promoter was investigated by raising tissue cholesterol levels by feeding cholesterol, or by inhibiting cholesterol synthesis with a statin (lovastatin). It was found that HMGR promoter constructs r esponded to lovastatin, in agreement with previous findings in cultured cells. This work sheds light on the regulation of the HMGR promoter in the liver, whose expression is a key determinant of serum cholesterol levels- a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease.

Novel therapies and delivery methods directed against malignancies such as melanoma, and particularly metastatic melanoma, are needed. The HIV-1 accessory protein Vpr (viral protein R) has previously been demonstrated to induce G2 cell cycle arrest as well as in vitro growth inhibition/killing of numerous tumor cell lines. In vivo electroporation has been utilized as an effective delivery method for pharmacologic agents as well as DNA plasmids that express "therapeutic" proteins and has been targeted to various tissues including malignant tumors. In this study, we assessed the ability of electroporation-mediated delivery of Vpr plasmid (pVpr) to induce growth attenuation or complete tumor regression in C57BL/6 mice with subcutaneous B16.F10 melanoma lesions. To assess the administration of intratumoral delivery of pVpr with in vivo electroporation, a range of Vpr plasmid dosages, electroporation parameters, and treatment days were evaluated in a subcutaneous B16 murine melanoma model. pVpr was injected directly into the tumors. Immediately following the injection, the subcutaneous tumors were electroporated. Treatment with 25 microgram or 100 microgram of pVpr plus electroporation on days 0 and 4 resulted in complete tumor regressions with long-term survival in 14.3% and 7.1% of the mice, respectively. In order to optimize the treatment regimen, B16 tumors were treated on days 0, 2, and 4 with 100 microgram pVpr plus electroporation which resulted in 50% of the mice with complete tumor regressions and long-term survival. Additional investigations revealed intratumoral Vpr expression and demonstrated that apoptosis was the mechanism by which Vpr caused tumor regression in vivo. This study confirmed that treatment with 100 microgram of pVpr plus electroporation led to durable complete regressions in established murine melanoma lesions. The pVpr plus electroporation treatment regimen has induced complete regressions in mice as well as resistance to tumor challenge in some of the animals. This is the first comprehensive study demonstrating the ability of Vpr, when delivered as a DNA expression plasmid with in vivo electroporation, to induce complete tumor regressions coupled with long- term survival of mice in a highly aggressive and metastatic solid tumor model.

<p>Electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWD) digital microfluidics is a droplet-based fluid handling technology capable of radically accelerating the pace of genome engineering research. EWD-based laboratory-on-chip (LoC) platforms demonstrate excellent performance in automating labor-intensive laboratory protocols at ever smaller scales. Until now, there has not been an effective means of gene transfer demonstrated in EWD microfluidic platforms. This thesis describes the theoretical and experimental approaches developed in the demonstration of an EWD-enabled electrotransfer device. Standard microfabrication methods were employed in the integration of electroporation (EP) and EWD device architectures. These devices enabled the droplet-based bulk transformation of E. coli with plasmid and oligo DNA. Peak on-chip transformation efficiencies for the EP/EWD device rivaled that of comparable benchtop protocols. Additionally, ultrasound induced in-droplet microstreaming was developed as a means of improving on-chip electroporation. The advent of electroporation in an EWD platform offers synthetic biologists a reconfigurable, programmable, and scalable fluid handling platform capable of automating next-generation genome engineering methods. This capability will drive the discovery and production of exotic biomaterials by providing the instrumentation necessary for rapidly generating ultra-rich genomic diversity at arbitrary volumetric scales.</p> / Dissertation

ABBREVIATION E – strength of electric field τ – pulse duration HV – high voltage, short pulses LV – low voltage, long pulses MEM - Minimum Essential Medium S – MEM - Spinner Minimum Essential medium LISPB – low ionic strength pulsing buffer ECT – electrochemotherapy LLC – Lewis Lung Carcinoma DC-3F – Chinese hamster lung fibroblastocites LPB – fibrosarkoma cell line BLM – bleomycin CPA – cyclophosphamide LY – Lucifer Yellow 1. INTRODUCTION The delivery of appropriate short and intense electric pulses to living cells, either in suspension or in tissue, results in a transient and reversible alteration of their cell membrane [Mir et al., 1995; Neumann et al., 1989]. The concept widely accepted is that under influence of strong external electric field the potential difference on the cell membrane occurs [Bernhardt and Pauly, 1973]. As a result of it the nanosize transient aqueous pores in the plasma membrane are created [Abidor et al, 1979, Leikin et al., 1986]. The process is called electroporation and initiated pores are named electropores [Neumann et al., 1989]. It is proposed that at higher field strength and pulse duration more and larger pores are initiated [Glaser et al., 1988]. At the tolerant pulse intensities the resealing of pores takes place and membrane came back to the previous state. The process is called reversible electroporation - REP [Weaver and Chizmadzhev, 1966]. Resealing of pores is in a range of milliseconds - minutes and often is... [to full text]