No description available.

Cells within multicellular organisms share the same genetic information, yet their shape and function can differ dramatically. This diversity of form and function is established by differential use of the genetic information. Early embryonic development describes the processes that lead to a fully differentiated embryo starting from a single fertilized cell - the zygote. Interestingly, in metazoan species this early development is governed by maternally provided factors (nutrients, RNA, protein), while the zygotic genome is transcriptionally inactive. Only at a specific developmental stage, the zygotic genome becomes transcriptionally active, and zygotic transcripts drive further embryonic development. This major change is called zygotic genome activation (ZGA). While major regulators of activation of early zygotic genes could be identified recently, the molecular mechanisms that contribute to robust global genome activation during embryonic development is not fully understood. In this study, I investigated whether the establishment of histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) is involved in zebrafish zygotic transcription activation and early embryonic development. H3K4me3 is a chromatin modification that is implicated in transcription regulation. H3K4me3 has been shown to be enriched at Transcription Start Sites (TSS) of genes prior to their activation, and is postulated facilitate transcription activation of developmentally important genes. To interfere with H3K4me3 establishment, I generated histone methyltransferase mutants. I further inhibited H3K4me3 establishment by introduction of histones with lysine 4-to-methionine (K4-to-M) substitution, which act as dominant-negative inhibitors of H3K4me3 establishment. Upon H3K4me3 reduction, I studied the resulting effect on early transcription activation. I found that H3K4me3 is not involved in transcription activation during early zebrafish embryogenesis. Finally I analyzed possible cues in DNA sequence and chromatin environment that might favor early H3K4me3 establishment. These studies show that H3K4me3 is established during ZGA, yet it is not involved in transcription activation during early zebrafish development. Establishment of H3K4me3 might be a consequence of histone methyltransferase recruitment during a permissive chromatin state, and might be targeted to CpG-rich promoter elements that are enriched for the histone variant H2A.z. / Jede Zelle eines multizellulären Organismus enthält dieselbe Erbinformation, und doch können Form und Funktion von Zellen untereinander sehr unterschiedlich sein. Diese Diversität wird durch unterschiedliches Auslesen - Transkribieren - der Erbinformation erreicht. Embryogenese beschreibt den Prozess, der aus einer einzelnen Zelle - der Zygote - einen multizellulären Embryo entstehen lässt. Interessanterweise laufen frühe Stadien der Embryogenese ohne Transkription der embryonalen Erbinformation ab, sondern werden durch maternal bereitgestellte Faktoren ermöglicht. Erst nach einer spezies-spezifischen Entwicklungsphase wird das Erbgut der Zygote aktiv transkribiert und ermöglicht die weitere Embryonalentwicklung. Obwohl bereits wichtige Regulatoren dieser globalen Genomaktivierung identifiziert werden konnten, sind viele molekulare Mechanismen, die zur Aktivierung des zygotischen Genoms beitragen, bisher unbekannt. In der hier vorliegenden Doktorarbeit habe ich die Rolle von Histon H3 Lysin 4 Trimethylierung (H3K4me3) während der frühen Embryogenese des Zebrafischs untersucht. H3K4me3 ist eine Chromatinmodifikation, die mit aktiver Transkription in Verbindung gebracht wird. H3K4me3 ist an Transkriptions-Start-Stellen von aktiv ausgelesenen Genen angereichert und es wird vermutet, dass diese Modifikation das Binden von Transkriptionsfaktoren und der Transkriptionsmaschinerie erleichtert. Während meiner Arbeit habe ich durch Mutation verschiedener Histon-Methyltransferasen beziehungsweise die Überexpression eines dominant-negativen Histonsubstrats versucht, die Etablierung von H3K4me3 in frühen Entwicklungsstadien des Zebrafischs zu verhindern. Anschliessend habe untersucht, welchen Effekt H3K4me3-Reduktion auf Tranksriptionsaktivität entsprechender Gene hat. Allerdings konnte ich keinen Zusammenhang zwischen H3K4me3-Reduktion und Transkriptionsaktivität beobachten. Um herauszufinden, weshalb H3K4me3 dennoch während früher Embryonalstadien etabliert wird, habe ich nachfolgend untersucht, ob möglicherweise bestimmte DNASequenzen oder Chromatin-Modifikationen zur Etablierung von H3K4me3 wahrend der Embryogenese des Zebrafischs beitragen. Aus der hier vorliegenden Arbeit lässt sich schlussfolgern, dass H3K4me3 in Tranksriptionsaktivierung während früher Embryonalstadien des Zebrafischs nicht involviert ist. Möglicherweise wird H3K4me3 in diesen Stadien in einer permissiven Chromatinumgebung etabliert, bevorzugt an Promotoren mit starker H2A.z-Anreicherung und CpG-reichen DNA-Elementen.

Histone methyltransferases are key players in eukaryotic gene regulation. The goal of this thesis was to study the role of the histone methyltransferase Mll2 in developing embryos and adult mice. Targeting of mouse ES cells with a multipurpose allele and blastocyst injection had previously generated a mouse line allowing analysis of Mll2 function by knock-out and conditional mutagenesis using Cre/loxP. The first part of the thesis comprised the analysis of the Mll2-/- phenotype, and included the cloning of a targeting construct to generate an ubiquitous, ligand-regulated Cre line. In the second part, we did conditional mutagenesis using the Rosa26-CreER(T2) line obtained from collaborators, and achieved complete knock-out of Mll2 in most tissues of embryos, neonates and adult mice. Mll2 is essential during embryonic development, as mutant embryos were severely growth retarded, had significant increases in apoptosis, and failed in gestation between E 9.5 and E11. Conditional removal of Mll2 protein at gastrulation (E 6.5) produced a similar phenotype at E 11. In contrast, the absence of Mll2 function after E 11 did not result in obvious defects at E16 and indicates an essential role for Mll2 between E6 and E11. Indeed, we identified a loss of expression of 3 important developmental regulators in mutants of this developmental stage: Hoxb1, Mox1 and Six3 are candidate targets for Mll2 regulation that encode homeobox type transcription factors involved in specifying cellular identity. We observed correct establishment of their developmental expression patterns, which than decay in Mll2-/- mutants at E9.5. These data concord with and extend current thoughts about the fly orthologue of Mll2, Trithorax, which suggest that it acts as an epigenetic lock in chromatin to maintain expression of certain transcription factors key to respective cellular identities, after their expression patterns have been established. After birth, Mll2 is dispensable in most tissues, as conditional knock out in neonates and adult mice did not produce any pathological findings except infertility of mutant males and females. Histological analysis of testis revealed progressive loss of spermatogonia, associated with increases in apoptosis but without overt proliferation, meiotic or differentiation defects or loss of the supporting Sertoli cells. Consequently, in addition to its regulation of homeotic genes during development, Mll2 is required for the maintenance of various mitotic cell populations including ES cells, embryonal cells and germ cells.

Techn. Universiẗat, Diss., 2005--Darmstadt.

Histone methyltransferases are key players in eukaryotic gene regulation. The goal of this thesis was to study the role of the histone methyltransferase Mll2 in developing embryos and adult mice. Targeting of mouse ES cells with a multipurpose allele and blastocyst injection had previously generated a mouse line allowing analysis of Mll2 function by knock-out and conditional mutagenesis using Cre/loxP. The first part of the thesis comprised the analysis of the Mll2-/- phenotype, and included the cloning of a targeting construct to generate an ubiquitous, ligand-regulated Cre line. In the second part, we did conditional mutagenesis using the Rosa26-CreER(T2) line obtained from collaborators, and achieved complete knock-out of Mll2 in most tissues of embryos, neonates and adult mice. Mll2 is essential during embryonic development, as mutant embryos were severely growth retarded, had significant increases in apoptosis, and failed in gestation between E 9.5 and E11. Conditional removal of Mll2 protein at gastrulation (E 6.5) produced a similar phenotype at E 11. In contrast, the absence of Mll2 function after E 11 did not result in obvious defects at E16 and indicates an essential role for Mll2 between E6 and E11. Indeed, we identified a loss of expression of 3 important developmental regulators in mutants of this developmental stage: Hoxb1, Mox1 and Six3 are candidate targets for Mll2 regulation that encode homeobox type transcription factors involved in specifying cellular identity. We observed correct establishment of their developmental expression patterns, which than decay in Mll2-/- mutants at E9.5. These data concord with and extend current thoughts about the fly orthologue of Mll2, Trithorax, which suggest that it acts as an epigenetic lock in chromatin to maintain expression of certain transcription factors key to respective cellular identities, after their expression patterns have been established. After birth, Mll2 is dispensable in most tissues, as conditional knock out in neonates and adult mice did not produce any pathological findings except infertility of mutant males and females. Histological analysis of testis revealed progressive loss of spermatogonia, associated with increases in apoptosis but without overt proliferation, meiotic or differentiation defects or loss of the supporting Sertoli cells. Consequently, in addition to its regulation of homeotic genes during development, Mll2 is required for the maintenance of various mitotic cell populations including ES cells, embryonal cells and germ cells.

Recurrent processes are a general feature of living systems, from the cell cycle to circadian day-night rhythms to hibernation and flowering cycles. During development and life, numerous recurrent processes are controlled by genetic oscillators, a specific class of genetic regulatory networks that generates oscillations in the level of gene products. A vital mechanism controlled by genetic oscillators is the rhythmic and sequential segmentation of the elongating body axis of vertebrate embryos. During this process, a large collection of coupled genetic oscillators gives rise to spatio-temporal wave patterns of oscillating gene expression at tissue level, forming a dynamic prepattern for the precursors of the vertebrae. While such systems of genetic oscillators have been studied extensively over the past years, many fundamental questions about their collective behavior remain unanswered. In this thesis, we study the behavior and the properties of genetic oscillators from the single oscillator scale to the complex pattern forming system involved in vertebrate segmentation. Genetic oscillators are subject to fluctuations because of the stochastic nature of gene expression. To study the effects of noisy biochemical coupling on genetic oscillators, we propose a theory in which both the internal dynamics of the oscillators as well as the coupling process are inherently stochastic. We find that stochastic coupling of oscillators profoundly affects their precision and synchronization properties, key features for their viability as biological pacemakers. Moreover, stochasticity introduces phenomena not known from deterministic systems, such as stochastic switching between different modes of synchrony. During vertebrate segmentation, genetic oscillators play a key role in establishing a segmental prepattern on tissue scale. We study the spatio-temporal patterns of oscillating gene expression using a continuum theory of coupled phase oscillators. We investigate the effects of different biologically relevant factors such as delayed coupling due to complex signaling processes, local tissue growth, and tissue shortening on pattern formation and segmentation. We find that the decreasing tissue length induces a Doppler effect that contributes to the rate of segment formation in a hitherto unanticipated way. Comparison of our theoretical findings with experimental data reveals the occurrence of such a Doppler effect in vivo. To this end, we develop quantification methods for the spatio-temporal patterns of gene expression in developing zebrafish embryos. On a cellular level, tissues have a discrete structure. To study the interplay of cellular processes like cell division and random cell movement with pattern formation, we go beyond the coarse-grained continuum theories and develop a three-dimensional cell-based model of vertebrate segmentation, in which the dynamics of the segmenting tissue emerges from the collective behavior of individual cells. We show that this model is able to describe tissue formation and segmentation in a self-organized way. It provides the first step of theoretically describing pattern formation and tissue dynamics during vertebrate segmentation in a unified framework involving a three-dimensional tissue with cells as distinct mechanical entities. Finally, we study the synchronization dynamics of generic oscillator systems whose coupling is subject to phase shifts and time delays. Such phase shifts and time delays are induced by complex signaling processes as found, e.g., between genetic oscillators. We show how phase shifts and coupling delays can alter the synchronization dynamics while leaving the collective frequency of the synchronized oscillators invariant. We find that in globally coupled systems, fastest synchronization occurs for non-vanishing coupling delays while in spatially extended systems, fastest synchronization can occur on length scales larger than the coupling range, giving rise to novel synchronization scenarios. Beyond their potential relevance for biological systems, these results have implications for general oscillator systems, e.g., in physics and engineering. In summary, we use discrete and continuous theories of genetic oscillators to study their dynamic behavior, comparing our theoretical results to experimental data where available. We cover a wide range of different topics, contributing to the general understanding of genetic oscillators and synchronization and revealing a hitherto unknown mechanism regulating the timing of embryonic pattern formation.

Cells within multicellular organisms share the same genetic information, yet their shape and function can differ dramatically. This diversity of form and function is established by differential use of the genetic information. Early embryonic development describes the processes that lead to a fully differentiated embryo starting from a single fertilized cell - the zygote. Interestingly, in metazoan species this early development is governed by maternally provided factors (nutrients, RNA, protein), while the zygotic genome is transcriptionally inactive. Only at a specific developmental stage, the zygotic genome becomes transcriptionally active, and zygotic transcripts drive further embryonic development. This major change is called zygotic genome activation (ZGA). While major regulators of activation of early zygotic genes could be identified recently, the molecular mechanisms that contribute to robust global genome activation during embryonic development is not fully understood. In this study, I investigated whether the establishment of histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) is involved in zebrafish zygotic transcription activation and early embryonic development. H3K4me3 is a chromatin modification that is implicated in transcription regulation. H3K4me3 has been shown to be enriched at Transcription Start Sites (TSS) of genes prior to their activation, and is postulated facilitate transcription activation of developmentally important genes. To interfere with H3K4me3 establishment, I generated histone methyltransferase mutants. I further inhibited H3K4me3 establishment by introduction of histones with lysine 4-to-methionine (K4-to-M) substitution, which act as dominant-negative inhibitors of H3K4me3 establishment. Upon H3K4me3 reduction, I studied the resulting effect on early transcription activation. I found that H3K4me3 is not involved in transcription activation during early zebrafish embryogenesis. Finally I analyzed possible cues in DNA sequence and chromatin environment that might favor early H3K4me3 establishment. These studies show that H3K4me3 is established during ZGA, yet it is not involved in transcription activation during early zebrafish development. Establishment of H3K4me3 might be a consequence of histone methyltransferase recruitment during a permissive chromatin state, and might be targeted to CpG-rich promoter elements that are enriched for the histone variant H2A.z.:Frontmatter II Acknowledgements VII Thesis Summary (English) IX Thesis Summary (German) X Table of Contents XIV List of Figures XVI List of Tables XVII List of Abbreviations XXIII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Transcription regulation 2 1.1.1 Promoter elements - genetic information that guides transcription initiation 2 1.1.2 Enhancers - fine-tuning of transcription by distal DNA elements 3 1.1.3 CpG islands - DNA sequences that allow for epigenetic regulation 4 1.2 Chromatin 4 1.2.1 Histone variants 7 1.2.2 Posttranslational histone modifications 7 1.2.3 Histone Lysine methylation 8 1.2.4 H3K4me3 in embryonic development 10 1.3 Establishment and removal of H3K4me3 10 1.3.1 Set1 homologs - Set1a and Set1b 11 1.3.2 Trithorax homologs - Mll1 and Mll2 11 1.3.3 Homologs of Trithorax-related - Mll3 and Mll4 13 1.3.4 COMPASS complex proteins 13 1.3.5 H3K4me3 removal 14 1.4 Transcription activation in embryos 14 1.4.1 Zebrafish early embryonic development 15 1.4.2 H3K4me3 during early zebrafish development 17 1.5 Thesis aim 17 2 Materials and Methods 19 2.1 Materials 19 2.2 Methods 36 2.2.1 Zebrafish husbandry and care 36 2.2.2 Generation of zebrafish knock-out lines by TALEN mutagenesis 36 2.2.3 Generation of plasmids for mRNA production 38 2.2.4 Microinjection 39 2.2.5 Germline transplantation 39 2.2.6 Western Blot Assays 40 2.2.7 RNA extraction and quantification assays 41 2.2.8 Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) 43 2.3 Bioinformatics Analyses 46 2.3.1 Quality control, alignment and peak calling 46 2.3.2 Lambda normalization 46 2.3.3 Differential ChIP enrichment analysis 47 2.3.4 Data integration 47 2.3.5 Gene classification 48 3 Results I: H3K4me3 interference by Histone methyltransferase mutation 49 3.1 Generation and phenotypic description of histone methyl-transferase mutants 49 3.1.1 HMT TALEN mutagenesis workflow 49 3.1.2 Ash2l TALEN mutation does not result in a larval or adult phenotype 52 3.1.3 Mll2 mutation results in increased larval mortality, while adult fish are healthy and fertile 54 3.1.4 Mll1 mutation results in increased larval mortality and a severe adult phenotype 56 3.2 HMT mutations do not affect global H3K4me3 levels in early zebrafish embryos 60 3.3 Mll1 mutation results in local H3K4me3 reduction of a small subset of genes 62 3.4 Early embryonic transcription is not altered in mll1 maternal-zygotic mutants 67 3.5 Conclusion 70 4 Results II: H3K4me3 interference by introduction of HMT inhibitors 71 4.1 Establishing a Western Blot assay to monitor H3K4me3 reduction 71 4.2 Overexpression of H3K4-specific histone demethylases does not result in global H3K4me3 reduction 73 4.3 Global reduction of H3K4me3 could not be achieved by small-molecule inhibition of HMT activity 75 4.4 Overexpression of K4-specific methylation-defective H3 results in global H3K4me3 reduction 76 4.4.1 Overexpression of H3K4-to-E constructs does not affect global H3K4me3 establishment 76 4.4.2 H3K4-to-M constructs act as dominant-negative substrate for H3K4me3 establishment 77 4.5 H3K4me3 levels at gene promoters are reduced upon introduction of methylation-defective Histone H3 79 4.6 Early transcription activation is not altered upon K4M overexpression 88 4.7 Conclusion 92 5 Results III: Promoters rich in CpG and H2A.z gain H3K4me3 early 93 5.1 H3K4me3 levels increase over developmental time at all gene classes 93 5.2 H3K4me3 is gained at CpG-rich elements 98 5.3 H2A.z marks overlaps with H3K4me3 at promoters of non-transcribed genes 100 5.4 High CpG density and H2A.z enrichment are predictive for H3K4me3 establishment 101 5.5 Maternally provided genes are enriched for H2A.z and CpG content 103 5.6 Conclusion 104 6 Discussion 105 6.1 Neither Mll1 nor Mll2 are the main histone methyltransferase for H3K4me3 establishment in early zebrafish development 106 6.2 H3K4me3 reduction does not affect transcription initiation during genome activation 107 6.3 The timing of H3K4me3 establishment might be determined by a permissive chromatin state 109 6.4 H3K4me3 potentially gains importance during later developmental stages 111 6.5 CpG-content and H2A.z enrichment might be predictive for H3K4me3 establishment during genome activation 112 6.6 Conclusion 115 Appendix 117 Bibliography 139 Authorship Declaration 159 / Jede Zelle eines multizellulären Organismus enthält dieselbe Erbinformation, und doch können Form und Funktion von Zellen untereinander sehr unterschiedlich sein. Diese Diversität wird durch unterschiedliches Auslesen - Transkribieren - der Erbinformation erreicht. Embryogenese beschreibt den Prozess, der aus einer einzelnen Zelle - der Zygote - einen multizellulären Embryo entstehen lässt. Interessanterweise laufen frühe Stadien der Embryogenese ohne Transkription der embryonalen Erbinformation ab, sondern werden durch maternal bereitgestellte Faktoren ermöglicht. Erst nach einer spezies-spezifischen Entwicklungsphase wird das Erbgut der Zygote aktiv transkribiert und ermöglicht die weitere Embryonalentwicklung. Obwohl bereits wichtige Regulatoren dieser globalen Genomaktivierung identifiziert werden konnten, sind viele molekulare Mechanismen, die zur Aktivierung des zygotischen Genoms beitragen, bisher unbekannt. In der hier vorliegenden Doktorarbeit habe ich die Rolle von Histon H3 Lysin 4 Trimethylierung (H3K4me3) während der frühen Embryogenese des Zebrafischs untersucht. H3K4me3 ist eine Chromatinmodifikation, die mit aktiver Transkription in Verbindung gebracht wird. H3K4me3 ist an Transkriptions-Start-Stellen von aktiv ausgelesenen Genen angereichert und es wird vermutet, dass diese Modifikation das Binden von Transkriptionsfaktoren und der Transkriptionsmaschinerie erleichtert. Während meiner Arbeit habe ich durch Mutation verschiedener Histon-Methyltransferasen beziehungsweise die Überexpression eines dominant-negativen Histonsubstrats versucht, die Etablierung von H3K4me3 in frühen Entwicklungsstadien des Zebrafischs zu verhindern. Anschliessend habe untersucht, welchen Effekt H3K4me3-Reduktion auf Tranksriptionsaktivität entsprechender Gene hat. Allerdings konnte ich keinen Zusammenhang zwischen H3K4me3-Reduktion und Transkriptionsaktivität beobachten. Um herauszufinden, weshalb H3K4me3 dennoch während früher Embryonalstadien etabliert wird, habe ich nachfolgend untersucht, ob möglicherweise bestimmte DNASequenzen oder Chromatin-Modifikationen zur Etablierung von H3K4me3 wahrend der Embryogenese des Zebrafischs beitragen. Aus der hier vorliegenden Arbeit lässt sich schlussfolgern, dass H3K4me3 in Tranksriptionsaktivierung während früher Embryonalstadien des Zebrafischs nicht involviert ist. Möglicherweise wird H3K4me3 in diesen Stadien in einer permissiven Chromatinumgebung etabliert, bevorzugt an Promotoren mit starker H2A.z-Anreicherung und CpG-reichen DNA-Elementen.:Frontmatter II Acknowledgements VII Thesis Summary (English) IX Thesis Summary (German) X Table of Contents XIV List of Figures XVI List of Tables XVII List of Abbreviations XXIII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Transcription regulation 2 1.1.1 Promoter elements - genetic information that guides transcription initiation 2 1.1.2 Enhancers - fine-tuning of transcription by distal DNA elements 3 1.1.3 CpG islands - DNA sequences that allow for epigenetic regulation 4 1.2 Chromatin 4 1.2.1 Histone variants 7 1.2.2 Posttranslational histone modifications 7 1.2.3 Histone Lysine methylation 8 1.2.4 H3K4me3 in embryonic development 10 1.3 Establishment and removal of H3K4me3 10 1.3.1 Set1 homologs - Set1a and Set1b 11 1.3.2 Trithorax homologs - Mll1 and Mll2 11 1.3.3 Homologs of Trithorax-related - Mll3 and Mll4 13 1.3.4 COMPASS complex proteins 13 1.3.5 H3K4me3 removal 14 1.4 Transcription activation in embryos 14 1.4.1 Zebrafish early embryonic development 15 1.4.2 H3K4me3 during early zebrafish development 17 1.5 Thesis aim 17 2 Materials and Methods 19 2.1 Materials 19 2.2 Methods 36 2.2.1 Zebrafish husbandry and care 36 2.2.2 Generation of zebrafish knock-out lines by TALEN mutagenesis 36 2.2.3 Generation of plasmids for mRNA production 38 2.2.4 Microinjection 39 2.2.5 Germline transplantation 39 2.2.6 Western Blot Assays 40 2.2.7 RNA extraction and quantification assays 41 2.2.8 Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) 43 2.3 Bioinformatics Analyses 46 2.3.1 Quality control, alignment and peak calling 46 2.3.2 Lambda normalization 46 2.3.3 Differential ChIP enrichment analysis 47 2.3.4 Data integration 47 2.3.5 Gene classification 48 3 Results I: H3K4me3 interference by Histone methyltransferase mutation 49 3.1 Generation and phenotypic description of histone methyl-transferase mutants 49 3.1.1 HMT TALEN mutagenesis workflow 49 3.1.2 Ash2l TALEN mutation does not result in a larval or adult phenotype 52 3.1.3 Mll2 mutation results in increased larval mortality, while adult fish are healthy and fertile 54 3.1.4 Mll1 mutation results in increased larval mortality and a severe adult phenotype 56 3.2 HMT mutations do not affect global H3K4me3 levels in early zebrafish embryos 60 3.3 Mll1 mutation results in local H3K4me3 reduction of a small subset of genes 62 3.4 Early embryonic transcription is not altered in mll1 maternal-zygotic mutants 67 3.5 Conclusion 70 4 Results II: H3K4me3 interference by introduction of HMT inhibitors 71 4.1 Establishing a Western Blot assay to monitor H3K4me3 reduction 71 4.2 Overexpression of H3K4-specific histone demethylases does not result in global H3K4me3 reduction 73 4.3 Global reduction of H3K4me3 could not be achieved by small-molecule inhibition of HMT activity 75 4.4 Overexpression of K4-specific methylation-defective H3 results in global H3K4me3 reduction 76 4.4.1 Overexpression of H3K4-to-E constructs does not affect global H3K4me3 establishment 76 4.4.2 H3K4-to-M constructs act as dominant-negative substrate for H3K4me3 establishment 77 4.5 H3K4me3 levels at gene promoters are reduced upon introduction of methylation-defective Histone H3 79 4.6 Early transcription activation is not altered upon K4M overexpression 88 4.7 Conclusion 92 5 Results III: Promoters rich in CpG and H2A.z gain H3K4me3 early 93 5.1 H3K4me3 levels increase over developmental time at all gene classes 93 5.2 H3K4me3 is gained at CpG-rich elements 98 5.3 H2A.z marks overlaps with H3K4me3 at promoters of non-transcribed genes 100 5.4 High CpG density and H2A.z enrichment are predictive for H3K4me3 establishment 101 5.5 Maternally provided genes are enriched for H2A.z and CpG content 103 5.6 Conclusion 104 6 Discussion 105 6.1 Neither Mll1 nor Mll2 are the main histone methyltransferase for H3K4me3 establishment in early zebrafish development 106 6.2 H3K4me3 reduction does not affect transcription initiation during genome activation 107 6.3 The timing of H3K4me3 establishment might be determined by a permissive chromatin state 109 6.4 H3K4me3 potentially gains importance during later developmental stages 111 6.5 CpG-content and H2A.z enrichment might be predictive for H3K4me3 establishment during genome activation 112 6.6 Conclusion 115 Appendix 117 Bibliography 139 Authorship Declaration 159

No description available.

During zebrafish gastrulation, highly coordinated cellular rearrangements lead to the formation of the three germ layers, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Recent studies have identified silberblick (slb/wnt11) as a key molecule that regulates gastrulation movement through a conserved pathway, which shares significant similarity with a signalling pathway that establishes epithelial planar cell polarity (PCP) in Drosophila (Heisenberg et al., 2000; Veeman et al., 2003), suggesting a role for cell polarity in regulating gastrulation movements. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which slb/wnt11 functions during zebrafish gastrulation are still not fully understood. In the first part of the thesis, the three-dimensional movement and morphology of individual cells in living embryos during the course of gastrulation were recorded and analysed using high resolution confocal microscopy. It was shown that in slb/wnt11 mutant embryos, hypoblast cells within the forming germ ring display slower, less directed migratory movements at the onset of gastrulation, which are accompanied by defects in the orientation of cellular processes along the individual movement directions of these cells. The net movement direction of the cells is not changed, suggesting that slb/wnt11-mediated orientation of cellular processes serves to facilitate and stabilize cell movements during gastrulation. By using an in vitro reaggregation assay on mesendodermal cells, combined with an analysis of the endogenous expression levels and distribution of E-cadherin in zebrafish embryos at the onset of gastrulation, E-cadherin mediated adhesion was found to be a downstream mechanism regulating slb/wnt11 function during gastrulation. Interestingly, the effects of slb/wnt11 on cell adhesion appear to be dependent on Rab5-mediated endocytosis, suggesting endocytic turnover of cell-cell contacts as one possible mechanism through which slb/wnt11 mediates its effects on gastrulation movements. - Die Druckexemplare enthalten jeweils eine CD-ROM als Anlagenteil: QuickTimeMovies (ca. 23 MB)- Übersicht über Inhalte siehe Dissertation S. 92 - 93"

Recurrent processes are a general feature of living systems, from the cell cycle to circadian day-night rhythms to hibernation and flowering cycles. During development and life, numerous recurrent processes are controlled by genetic oscillators, a specific class of genetic regulatory networks that generates oscillations in the level of gene products. A vital mechanism controlled by genetic oscillators is the rhythmic and sequential segmentation of the elongating body axis of vertebrate embryos. During this process, a large collection of coupled genetic oscillators gives rise to spatio-temporal wave patterns of oscillating gene expression at tissue level, forming a dynamic prepattern for the precursors of the vertebrae. While such systems of genetic oscillators have been studied extensively over the past years, many fundamental questions about their collective behavior remain unanswered. In this thesis, we study the behavior and the properties of genetic oscillators from the single oscillator scale to the complex pattern forming system involved in vertebrate segmentation. Genetic oscillators are subject to fluctuations because of the stochastic nature of gene expression. To study the effects of noisy biochemical coupling on genetic oscillators, we propose a theory in which both the internal dynamics of the oscillators as well as the coupling process are inherently stochastic. We find that stochastic coupling of oscillators profoundly affects their precision and synchronization properties, key features for their viability as biological pacemakers. Moreover, stochasticity introduces phenomena not known from deterministic systems, such as stochastic switching between different modes of synchrony. During vertebrate segmentation, genetic oscillators play a key role in establishing a segmental prepattern on tissue scale. We study the spatio-temporal patterns of oscillating gene expression using a continuum theory of coupled phase oscillators. We investigate the effects of different biologically relevant factors such as delayed coupling due to complex signaling processes, local tissue growth, and tissue shortening on pattern formation and segmentation. We find that the decreasing tissue length induces a Doppler effect that contributes to the rate of segment formation in a hitherto unanticipated way. Comparison of our theoretical findings with experimental data reveals the occurrence of such a Doppler effect in vivo. To this end, we develop quantification methods for the spatio-temporal patterns of gene expression in developing zebrafish embryos. On a cellular level, tissues have a discrete structure. To study the interplay of cellular processes like cell division and random cell movement with pattern formation, we go beyond the coarse-grained continuum theories and develop a three-dimensional cell-based model of vertebrate segmentation, in which the dynamics of the segmenting tissue emerges from the collective behavior of individual cells. We show that this model is able to describe tissue formation and segmentation in a self-organized way. It provides the first step of theoretically describing pattern formation and tissue dynamics during vertebrate segmentation in a unified framework involving a three-dimensional tissue with cells as distinct mechanical entities. Finally, we study the synchronization dynamics of generic oscillator systems whose coupling is subject to phase shifts and time delays. Such phase shifts and time delays are induced by complex signaling processes as found, e.g., between genetic oscillators. We show how phase shifts and coupling delays can alter the synchronization dynamics while leaving the collective frequency of the synchronized oscillators invariant. We find that in globally coupled systems, fastest synchronization occurs for non-vanishing coupling delays while in spatially extended systems, fastest synchronization can occur on length scales larger than the coupling range, giving rise to novel synchronization scenarios. Beyond their potential relevance for biological systems, these results have implications for general oscillator systems, e.g., in physics and engineering. In summary, we use discrete and continuous theories of genetic oscillators to study their dynamic behavior, comparing our theoretical results to experimental data where available. We cover a wide range of different topics, contributing to the general understanding of genetic oscillators and synchronization and revealing a hitherto unknown mechanism regulating the timing of embryonic pattern formation.