An increasing stream of research has shown that leaders' emotions have substantial impact on followers' attitudes and performance. However, this line of research has not explored the psychological process leaders use to generate and express their emotions. This is an important gap in the leadership literature because theoretical and empirical work suggests that leaders do manage their feelings and / or expressions of emotions in leader-follower interactions. Therefore, to fill this critical gap, this dissertation examined the role of leaders' emotional labor on followers' attitudes and performance and on leaders' attitudes and well-being. A longitudinal survey design was employed to test study hypotheses. Data were collected from supervisors and their direct reports in three business organizations in the Midwest. Results show that leaders' surface acting was significantly negatively associated with followers' transformational leadership perceptions, which were positively related to follower job satisfaction, organizational identification, task performance, and organizational citizenship behavior directed toward the organization (OCB-O). Leaders' deep acting and display of genuine emotions were positively related to followers' emotional engagement, which was positively related to job satisfaction, organizational identification, and OCB-O. In addition, the mean level of leaders' expressed positive emotions moderated the relationship between leaders' display of genuine emotions and followers' positive emotional reactions, such that leaders' display of genuine emotions had the most positive effect when followers perceived that the mean level of leaders' expressed emotions was highly positive. Consistent with my arguments, transformational leadership and positive emotional reactions were positively related to emotional engagement, whereas negative emotional reactions were negatively related to emotional engagement. Positive emotional reactions were positively correlated with job satisfaction, organizational identification, organizational citizenship behavior directed toward other individuals (OCB-I), and OCBO. Unlike positive emotional reactions, negative emotional reactions had negative relationships with the above outcome variables. Contrary to my expectations, leaders' surface acting was negatively associated with leaders' emotional exhaustion and leaders' emotional labor was not significantly associated with leaders' job satisfaction. Additional analyses revealed several unexpected but important findings. Theoretical contributions, managerial implications, limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Integrating existing models of emotional expressivity, the 3-level hierarchical model contains a general factor of emotional expressivity vs. inexpressivity at the highest level; relatively independent factors of positive and negative expressivity at the second-order level; and discrete expressivity factors of sadness, hostility, guilt/shame, fear, joviality, confidence and amusement at the lowest level. The bottom-up analytic strategy consisted of identifying first the structure of the discrete affects; subsequent second-order factor analyses supported the existence of the higher order factors. The Iowa Scales of Emotional Expressivity (ISEE)--a hierarchical set of scales--systematically incorporate the level of abstraction of the items to assess each level of the hierarchy. Structural analyses replicated across college student (N = 387) and young adult (N = 344) samples with strong comparability coefficients. Striking differences existed in comparisons of the nomological relations of the general factor level vs. second-order level--Positive and Negative Expressivity demonstrated differential relations with Extraversion and Neuroticism and incremental predictive validity beyond Positive and Negative Affect, respectively. The ISEE demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity with existing scales and through multi-trait multi-method analyses of self-other agreement and test-retest data. Although test-retest correlations were less than optimal, the ISEE improve upon existing measures of emotional expressivity by extending the assessment to the discrete affect level and by creating Positive and Negative Expressivity scales with improved discriminant validity and clearer differential relations.

This study examines the ways Parisians viewed marriage contracts and marital relationships in the late fourteenth century. It focuses on the Archidiaconal court of Paris and the ways men and women used the court to modify their marriages. My argument in this project is two-fold: First, I argue that the Parisian laity had at least a basic understanding of marriage law, especially the importance of consent for the creation of marriages, and that women, in particular, used that knowledge to control their choice of marriage partner. Second, I argue that after the formation of the marriage, society had certain expectations for both husbands and wives. The evidence from narrative sources—such as conduct manuals and saints lives—presents a picture of obedient wives loving their husbands, who not only financially supported the household, but also loved their wives in return. Similarly, within Parisian separation cases, these same expectations allowed the majority of plaintiffs—usually female—to legally separate from their husband who did not live up to this ideal. The majority of this study uses documents from the Archidiaconal court of Paris from 1384-1387, but my arguments speak to a wider view of medieval marriage and the ways society viewed marriage more generally. Overall, these court cases indicate a wider cultural acceptance of affective marriages in the Middle Ages, and fit into the larger argument of female agency within the medieval legal system. Despite women’s marginalized legal status—in many cases not being allowed even to testify in court—women in the late fourteenth-century Archidiaconal court of Paris were regularly plaintiffs, defendants, and witnesses before the officials. Women pled their cases sometimes with the support of legal counsel or their parents, but often alone, and they successfully negotiated the legal system to achieve their preferred outcome.

Children who have Nonverbal Learning Disabilities (NLD) exhibit strengths in verbal domains and deficits in perceptual reasoning domains. These children are often seen as bright and may even be identified as gifted due to their superior decoding proficiency, expansive vocabulary, and remarkable rote memory skills. Conversely, psychosocial difficulties such as acquiring self-help skills and interacting with others appropriately often present serious challenges. Children with NLD may also vacillate between internalized (e.g., anxiety) and externalized (e.g., acting out) behaviors and are commonly seen as unmotivated, defiant, and oppositional. Given the potential psychosocial difficulties that children who have NLD experience, it is imperative that early and effective interventions are accessed. In order to provide appropriate treatments, the identification of factors that occasion psychosocial difficulties is warranted. Thus, the primary purpose of the study was to identify specific NLD characteristics based on specific demographic variables of age, gender, parent education, and number and types of other diagnoses. Further identification efforts compared the Pediatric Behavior Scales (PBS) of Conduct, Attention, Depression, Anxiety, and Deviation to both General Ability Index (GAI) scores and Verbal Comprehension and Perceptual Reasoning (VCI/PRI) discrepancy scores on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children - Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). Identical analyses were performed for a Dysphasia contrast group. A secondary purpose of this study was to add to the growing body of evidence suggesting the existence of NLD subtypes. Analyses conducted indicated that children in the NLD group had significantly more diagnoses, higher mother and father education, and higher VCI and GAI scores than those in the Dysphasia group. In addition, children in the NLD group held substantially more ADHD diagnoses whereas the Dysphasia group supported more Dyslexia and Dysnomia diagnoses. Further analyses showed relationships between GAI and the PBS Depression scale, GAI and both mother and father education, and VCI/PRI discrepancy and number of diagnoses for the NLD group. PBS Conduct, Attention, and Deviation scales and VCI/PRI discrepancy were correlated for the Dysphasia group. Overall, results revealed that NLD and Dysphasia groups presented different social and emotional symptomology. In addition, there is tentative support for the presence of NLD subtypes. Future areas of research and treatment recommendations are provided.

It has only been recently that research in childhood psychopathology has focused on a group of disorders referred to as internalizing disorders. Internalizing disorders can include such problems as depression. anxiety, social withdrawal, and somatic complaints. Even though research has begun to focus on internalizing disorders with majority children. there has been very little research conducted on ethnic minority children, Native American children in particular. The present study involved obtaining a Native American sample and determining their internalizing symptomology utilizing the Internalizing Symptom Scale for Children (ISSC), the Reynolds Child Depression Scale (RCDS), and the State Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (ST AIC). The study sample was compared to a matched normative sample from the ISSC database. Statistical procedures included bivariate correlations, analysis of variance (ANOV A), and discriminant function analysis. Correlations between the ISSC and the two comparison measures (RCDS and ST AIC) were in the expected direction and of moderate to strong magnitude. The total internalizing symptoms scores of the Native American (Lakota Sioux) sample were similar to those of a matched comparison group from the ISSC national normative database. However, the study sample evidenced a unique pattern of responses on the ISSC subscales, reporting lower rates of both internalizing distress and positive affect. Teacher nominations of potential "internalizers" proved to be a poor predictor of their self-reported symptoms. Implications of this study for clinical practice and future research directions in this area are discussed.

This capstone project was part of a group project completed by five school and district administrators in Hillsborough County, Florida. The project began because of our passion for teachers who are able to establish a culture of care in their classrooms that support students academically but transform their learning through experiences that enable them to be more highly engaged and productive students, regardless of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, perceived academic abilities, and backgrounds. My focus in this group project looked at social emotional learning, student behavior, and student achievement in high needs schools. Social Emotional Learning (SEL) and its related activities and lessons were once a foundational piece of the middle school program. Over the years, increased accountability and legislative mandates have made it very challenging to include dedicated time in a student’s daily schedule for SEL lessons and activities. In Hillsborough County Public Schools, a summer program for retained sixth graders served as a launching ground for the re-introduction of SEL activities. The positive impact of the SEL activities were immediate and the SEL lessons, delivered through daily Community Building Sessions (CBS), were received well by teachers and students. How can the overwhelmingly positive results of the use of SEL activities with students in a summer program be replicated during the regular school year? Literature supported the growing need for social emotional learning, positive impacts of SEL on student behavior and academic learning, the importance of positive classroom climates as a school-wide strategy, and the importance of leadership support.

My research focuses on the emotional experience of the unearthing of ancestral bones for local Māori of Matata. The coastal town of Matata in the Eastern Bay of Plenty provides a central case study location as it is a town that is facing the pressure of coastal residential development as well the added strain of dealing with the 2005 flood which has compounded issues over local waahi tapu. Local iwi have continued to actively advocate for the protection of these sites especially with regard to the ongoing discovery of ancestral bones. Cultural and emotional geographies provide the theoretical framework for this research. This framework has been particularly useful as it encourages reflexive commentary and alternative ways of approaching and thinking about, and understanding knowledge. I have incorporated the research paradigm of kaupapa Māori which complements my theoretical framework by producing a research design that is organised and shaped according to tikanga Māori while (in) advertently critiquing and challenging traditional ways of conducting research. The overall aim is to explore the current issues surrounding the discovery of ancestral bones through korero with local iwi members. It is through their perspectives, stories, beliefs and opinions that provide a better understanding of the meanings attributed to waahi tapu and the influence of certain events such as the 2005 flood. I examine, critically the relationship between power, sacred sites, bones and the body. It is from these objectives that I contribute to an area of scholarship that has been largely left out from geographical enquiry. I suggest that the importance of sacredness and spirituality has been relatively overlooked as an influential factor in people's perceptions of the world around them. This thesis is intended to demonstrate the value of indigenous perspectives of bones, the body and sacredness as a way of better understanding some of the complexities that can arise when cross-cultural approaches collide in environmental planning. There are three main themes that have emerged from this research. The first theme has to do with competing knowledges. To Māori, the location and knowledge of ancestral bones is culturally important and is in its self sacred, therefore certain tikanga is applied as a means of a protection mechanism. However this ideologically clashes with traditional scientific western approaches which are privileged over other alternative ways of understanding knowledge, in this case Māori knowledge. The second related theme concerns the process of boundary making and cross-cultural ways of perceiving 'sacred' and 'everyday' spaces. To better understand these perspectives involves acknowledging the embodied and emotional experience of wāhi tapu to Māori, and the active role of kaitiaki in the protection and careful management of these culturally important spaces.

This qualitative research project explored the experiences of nurse educators who sought to assess aspects, which could be related to facilitation of emotional competence, in nursing students. Focus groups were conducted in three different educational institutions, offering a Bachelor of nursing degree. Each of the participants had a teaching and assessment role within the school of nursing. The contributions of the nurse educators and their interactions were audio taped, transcribed and then later, analysed using thematic and focus group analysis practices.From the analysis of the experiences of the nurse educators, four predominant themes arose which capture the areas of importance to the participants. Student nurses can develop emotional competence by critically reflecting during classroom and clinical experiences. Continuous consideration must be made within each practicing area of nursing, of the environmental and relational challenges which inhibit or facilitate nurse's ability to practice with emotional competence. Educators and practicing nurses, who work alongside students, must uphold the expectation that emotional competence is a requisite ability and provide opportunities to foster emotional growth and skills to resolve conflict within the culture of nursing.A common view shared by the educators was that the profession of nursing needs to have a clear understanding of what constitutes emotional competence. Strategies to realistically incorporate emotional competence into the educational curriculum and competency based assessment opportunities within nursing education are required.Suggestions are presented from which undergraduate nursing education can facilitate development of emotional competence with those students working toward becoming a registered nurse. Emotional competence is suggested as an essential learning outcome in the movement toward transformative nursing education and a collaborative nursing profession.

Past research indicates a causal relationship between emotional writing and health benefits (Smyth, 1998). At present, little is known about the mechanisms underlying change or if the emotional writing paradigm may be applied to a clinical setting. This present study reviewed current models of trauma and hypothesised three mechanisms of change leading to future health benefits: exposure, devaluation, and benefit-finding. Instructions for the standard writing paradigm were manipulated to isolate and increase engagement with each of these processes. It was hypothesised that if any one of these processes were to underlie health benefits, participants assigned to that condition would obtain more benefit than standard writing participants. Individual differences were also hypothesised to interact with each process to amplify or detract from their influence in leading to future benefit. A total of 201 university students were recruited from Griffith University. Participants were assigned to one of five writing conditions: Control, Standard, Exposure, Devaluation, and Benefit-Finding. Sessions were conducted once a week for three weeks. Physiological and self-report measures were taken before, during and after writing sessions. Follow-up assessments of psychological and physical health were taken at 2 and 6-months post-writing. Essay content analysis suggested that participants wrote in the instructed manner. Participants assigned to each of the groups experienced expected amounts of distress and affect changes. Overall, results failed to replicate the beneficial health effects for the standard emotional writing paradigm. There were no significant physical or psychological benefits for the standard trauma-writing participants in comparison to control. However, a trend in the appropriate direction was noted for illness visits at 6-months. Furthermore, in support of Greenberg and Stone's (1992) findings, standard writing participants who disclosed more severe and personal experiences evidenced significant illness visit reductions in comparison to control. Comparisons between standard and experimental trauma writing groups failed to support hypotheses that any one mechanism was responsible for physical health benefits. Examination of psychological self-report measures indicated exposure participants experienced the greatest reduction on the Impact of Events Scale at two months. However, these participants experienced greater reduction of positive affect and growth for the experience. They also became more anxious, depressed, and stressed at six-months follow-up. Process variables were examined within the exposure condition to explain these findings. Habituation was found to be strongly associated with the alternate outcomes. Individual differences. Including alexithymia, absorption, and negative affect, were also related to outcome. Benefit-finding participants experienced the greatest increase on a measure of post-traumatic growth at two-months and positive affect for the experience, but the finding was significant only in comparison to exposure and devaluation groups. The results of this study failed to identify the process of change, but suggest specific areas for future research. The findings demonstrate the importance of comprehensive health research to avoid blanket statements that suggest a paradigm either does or does not lead to health benefits. The results also support the manipulation of the writing paradigm to examine the role of emotion processing in trauma and health research.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / New scoring and test construction methods for emotional intelligence (EI) are suggested as alternatives for current practice, where most tests are scored by group judgment and are in ratings-based format. Both the ratings-based format and the proportion-based scores resulting from group judgments may act as method effects, obscuring relationships between EI tests, and between EI and intelligence. In addition, scoring based on standards rather than group judgments add clarity to the meaning of test scores. For these reasons, two new measures of emotional intelligence (EI) are constructed: (1) the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU); and (2) the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM). Following test construction, validity evidence is collected from four multi-variate studies. The STEU’s items and a standards-based scoring system are developed according to empirically derived appraisal theory concerning the structure of emotion [Roseman, 2001]. The STEM is developed as a Situational Judgment Test (SJT) with situations representing sadness, fear and anger in work life and personal life settings. Two qualitative studies form the basis for the STEM’s item development: (1) content analysis of responses to semi-structured interviews with 31 psychology undergraduates and 19 community volunteers; and (2) content analysis of free responses to targeted vignettes created from these semi-structured interviews (N = 99). The STEM may be scored according to two expert panels of emotions researchers, psychologists, therapists and life coaches (N = 12 and N = 6). In the first multi-variate study (N = 207 psychology undergraduates), both STEU and STEM scores relate strongly to vocabulary test scores and moderately to Agreeableness but no other dimension from the five-factor model of personality. STEU scores predict psychology grade and an emotionally-oriented thinking style after controlling vocabulary and personality test scores (ΔR2 = .08 and .06 respectively). STEM scores did not predict academic achievement but did predict emotionally-oriented thinking and life satisfaction (ΔR2 = .07 and .05 for emotionally-oriented thinking and .04 for life satisfaction). In the second multi-variate study, STEU scores predict lower levels of state anxiety, and STEM scores predict lower levels of state anxiety, depression, and stress among 149 community volunteers from Sydney, Australia. In the third multi-variate study (N = 181 psychology undergraduates), Strategic EI, fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc) were each measured with three indicators, allowing these constructs to be assessed at the latent variable level. Nested structural equation models show that Strategic EI and Gc form separate latent factors (Δχ2(1) = 12.44, p < .001). However, these factors relate very strongly (r = .73), indicating that Strategic EI may be a primary mental ability underlying Gc. In this study, STEM scores relate to emotionally-oriented thinking but not loneliness, life satisfaction or state stress, and STEU scores do not relate to any of these. STEM scores are significantly and meaningfully higher for females (d = .80), irrespective of gender differences in verbal ability or personality, or whether expert scores are derived from male or female experts. The fourth multi-variate study (N = 118 psychology undergraduates) distinguishes an EI latent factor (indicated by scores on the STEU, STEM and two emotion recognition ability measures) from a general cognitive ability factor (indicated by three intelligence measures; Δχ2(1) = 10.49, p < .001), although again cognitive ability and EI factors were strongly related (r = .66). Again, STEM scores were significantly higher for females (d = .44) and both STEU and STEM relate to Agreeableness but not to any other dimension from the five-factor model of personality. Taken together, results suggest that: (1) STEU and STEM scores are reasonably reliable and valid tests of EI; (2) EI tests assess slightly different constructs to existing measures of Gc, but more likely form a new primary mental ability within Gc than an entirely separate construct; and (3) the female superiority for EI tests may prove useful for addressing adverse impact in applied settings (e.g., selection for employment, promotion or educational opportunities), particularly given that many current assessment tools result in a male advantage.