A engenharia hidrológica visa quantificar os parâmetros que envolvem um balanço híbrido. Nesse domínio, a avaliação da taxa de recarga de aqüíferos subterrâneos torna-se relevante, devido ao uso indiscriminado desse recurso híbrido. Com o auxílio de um lisímetro e a aplicação de conceitos teóricos da infiltração, estimou-se a taxa de recarga potencial do Aqüífero Guarani para a região de São Carlos. O lisímetro, instalado na Estação Hidrometereológica do CRHEA, possui uma área de exposição de 3,6 m2 e profundidade de 1,50 m. Para a coleta do volume infiltrado utilizou-se um sistema de drenagem, com destino em um tanque coletor graduado. O lisímetro foi preenchido com solo da zona de afloramento do Aqüífero Guarani (solo arenoso). Houve monitoramento de umidade do solo, dentro do lisímetro e em campo aberto, nas proximidades do local de retirada do solo. Coletaram-se dados de infiltração no período de janeiro de 2002 a janeiro de 2003. A taxa de recarga direta potencial foi estimada em 55,6% da precipitação, para o período em estudo. Análises do comportamento da água no solo demonstraram que a recarga em aqüíferos subterrâneos ocorre somente em períodos de chuva (novembro a março). Para o período seco (abril a outubro) as precipitações esparsas não são suficientes para suprir a deficiência de umidade do solo. O trabalho permitiu, ainda, concluir que os métodos teóricos para estimar evapotranspiração potencial não são adequados em regiões caracterizadas por períodos secos e chuvosos. / Hydrologic Engineering quantifies the parameters involving water balance. Thus, the evaluation of aquifers recharge rates is considered a relevant matter due to the uncontrolled use of this type of water resource. The potential recharge rate of Guarani Aquifer for São Carlos area was estimated based on data measured on lysimeter and through the analysis of theoretical infiltration concepts. The lysimeter, assembled at the Hydrometereological Station of CRHEA, is 1.50 m deep and has 3.6 m2 of exposure area. A drainage was used to collect the infiltrated volume, leading it to a graduate collection tank. The lysimeter was filled with soil from the recharge zone of Guarani Aquifer (sandy soil). Soil humidity was monitored inside the lysimeter and at open field, around the area from where the soil was extracted. Infiltration data was recorded between January 2002 and January 2003. Potential direct recharge rate was calculated to 55.6% of the precipitation, for the studied period. Analyses of water behavior in the soil have shown that aquifers recharge occurs only in rainy periods (from november to march). Throughout the droughts (from april to october), sparse precipitations are not enough to compensate the humidity deficiency in the soil. It was also possible to conclude that the theoretical methods for estimation of potential evapotranspiration are not suitable for regions characterized by droughts and rainy periods.

A disponibilidade de água no solo para as culturas é um dos principais fatores de produção. O estudo das características climáticas, juntamente com as propriedades físico-hídricas do solo, o sistema de manejo do agro-ambiente e as características vegetais são itens fundamentais para a implantação de um canavial produtivo. Objetivando caracterizar o comportamento da água no solo e sua influência na produtividade da cana-de-açúcar com e sem adubação nitrogenada, foram instalados instrumentos para medir a entrada e saída da água do solo, permitindo a efetuação do balanço de água em um LATOSSOLO VERMELHO Distrófico típico, localizado na Usina Santa Adélia, Município de Jaboticabal - São Paulo. O estudo foi conduzido em delineamento de blocos casualizados, com 2 tratamentos e 4 repetições, sendo que os tratamentos constaram de uma testemunha - T1 (sem adubação nitrogenada) e T2 (120 kg ha-1 de nitrogênio). As avaliações foram realizadas do dia 30 de setembro de 2005 a 12 de julho de 2006. O volume de controle de utilizado teve como limite inferior a profundidade de 0,90 m, uma vez que essa camada engloba mais de 95 % do sistema radicular da cana-de-açúcar. A precipitação pluviométrica foi medida com um pluviômetro, modelo Paulista, instalado ao lado da área experimental e uma estação meteorológica automática instalada a 500 m da área experimental. As armazenagens de água no solo foram feitas gravimetricamente, nas seguintes camadas: 0 - 0,15; 0,15 - 0,25; 0,25 - 0,35; 0,35 - 0,45; 0,45 - 0,55; 0,55 - 0,65; 0,65 - 0,75; 0,75 - 0,85; 0,85 - 0,95 m; em períodos que variaram de 14 a 28 dias, totalizando 14 amostragens. Para a determinação das densidades de fluxo diárias, no limite inferior do volume de controle de solo, foram instalados tensiômetros nas profundidades de 0,80; 0,90 e 1,0 m, sendo que o tensiômetro de 0,90 m foi utilizado para a estimação da umidade do solo, com uso da curva de retenção da água no solo, e os outros dois tensiômetros para o cálculo do gradiente de potencial total da água no solo. As densidades de fluxo foram calculadas pela equação de Darcy-Buckingham, sendo que a condutividade hidráulica do solo foi determinada pelo método do perfil instantâneo. Conhecendo esses componentes, foi possível efetuar o balanço de água no solo para os 13 períodos, calculando a evapotranspiração pela equação de balanço de massas, uma vez que a pequena declividade permitiu negligenciar o escoamento superficial. As perdas de água por drenagem interna para todo o período não apresentou diferença significativa, enquanto a entrada de água no volume de controle de solo por ascensão capilar foi 87,53 % maior no T2. Esse comportamento das densidades de fluxo nos tratamentos não refletiu em diferença significativa para a armazenagem de água no solo. Ao longo dos 13 períodos avaliados, o T2 apresentou uma evapotranspiração de 1156,06 mm, enquanto no T1 foi de 1057,85. Não se verificou diferença significativa para a produtividade, nem para a eficiência de uso da água da cultura. / The soil water availability for agricultural crops is one of the main production factors. The study of climatic characteristics together with soil physical and hydrological properties, agroenvironmental management system and the plant characteristics are of fundamental importance for the introduction of a productive sugarcane crop. With the objective of characterizing the soilwater behaviour and its influence on the sugarcane productivity, with and without nitrogen fertilization, instruments were installed to measure inputs and outputs of water in the soil, which permitted the determination of the water balance in an Ultisol (Arenic Kandiustults) located in the county of Jaboticabal, State of São Paulo, Brazil. The work was carried out using the experimental design of random blocks, with two treatments and four replications, being the treatments: T1 (control, without nitrogen fertilization), T2 (120 kg ha-1 of nitrogen fertilization). Measurements were made from September 30, 2005 to July 12, 2006. The lower limit of the soil control volume for the water balance was the soil depth if 0.9 m. Rainfall was measured with a raingauge, model ?Paulista? installed beside the experimental area and also by means of an automatic meteorological station installed 500 m from the experimental area. Soil water storages were made gravimetrically in the following soil layers 0 - 0.15 m; 0.15 - 0.25 m; 0.25 - 0.35 m; 0.35 - 0.45 m; 0.45 - 0.55 m; 0.55 - 0.65 m; 0.65 - 0.75 m; 0.75 - 0.85 m; 0.85 - 0.95 m in periods that varied from 14 to 28 days, totalizing 14 samplings. For the dayly water flux density calculations in the lower limit of the control volume, by Darcy-Buckingham equation, tensiometers were installed the 0.80, 0.90 and 1.00 m soil depths, being the tensiometer at the 0.90 m depth used to calculate the soil water content, via a soil water retention curve, and then the soil hydraulic conductivity at this depth, and the other two tensiometers to calculate the soil water total potential gradient at the same depth. The hydraulic conductivity as a function of soil water content was determined by the instantaneous profile method. With the knowledge of these processes of the soil water balance, it was possible to determine the balance for the 13 selected periods, calculating the actual evapotranspiration as the unknown of the soil water balance equation. The small slope of the experimental area permitted to neglect the surface runoff. Internal drainage water losses for the entire period between treatments, were not different, while the water inputs in the control volume by capillary rise was 87.53% higher in treatments T2. This behaviour of the water flux densities in the treatments did not reflect in significant differences for the soil water storage. For the entire evaluated period, treatment T2 presented an evapotranspiration of 1156.06 mm, and treatement T1 of 1057.85 mm. Sugarcane productivity and water use efficiency did not present significant defference between treatments T1 and T2 eventhough plants of treatment T1 were, in average, more efficient in using water.

Crop growth simulation models can address a variety of agricultural problems, but their use to directly assist in-season irrigation management decisions is less common. Confidence in model reliability can be increased if models are shown to provide improved in-season management recommendations, which are explicitly tested in the field. The objective of this study was to compare the CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton model (with recently updated ET routines) to a well-tested FAO-56 irrigation scheduling spreadsheet by (1) using both tools to schedule cotton irrigation during 2014 and 2015 in central Arizona and (2) conducting a post-hoc simulation study to further compare outputs from these tools. Two replications of each irrigation scheduling treatment and a water-stressed treatment were established on a 2.6 ha field. Irrigation schedules were developed on a weekly basis and administered via an overhead lateral-move sprinkler irrigation system. Neutron moisture meters were used weekly to estimate soil moisture status and crop water use, and destructive plant samples were routinely collected to estimate cotton leaf area index (LAI) and canopy weight. Cotton yield was estimated using two mechanical cotton pickers with differing capabilities: (1) a two-row picker that facilitated manual collection of yield samples from 32 m(2) areas and (2) a four-row picker equipped with a sensor-based cotton yield monitoring system. In addition to statistical testing of field data via mixed models, the data were used for post-hoc reparameterization and fine-tuning of the irrigation scheduling tools. Post-hoc simulations were conducted to compare measured and simulated evapotranspiration, crop coefficients, root zone soil moisture depletion, cotton growth metrics, and yield for each irrigation treatment. While total seasonal irrigation amounts were similar among the two scheduling tools, the crop model recommended more water during anthesis and less during the early season, which led to higher cotton fiber yield in both seasons (p < 0.05). The tools calculated cumulative evapotranspiration similarly, with root mean squared errors (RMSEs) less than 13%; however, FAO-56 crop coefficient (K-c) plots demonstrated subtle differences in daily evapotranspiration calculations. Root zone soil moisture depletion was better calculated by CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton, perhaps due to its more complex soil profile simulation; however, RMSEs for depletion always exceeded 20% for both tools and reached 149% for the FAO-56 spreadsheet in 2014. CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton simulated cotton LAI, canopy weight, canopy height, and yield with RMSEs less than 21%, while the FAO-56 spreadsheet had no capability for such outputs. Through field verification and thorough post-hoc data analysis, the results demonstrated that the CSM-CROPGRO-Cotton model with updated FAO-56 ET routines could match or exceed the accuracy and capability of an FAO-56 spreadsheet tool for cotton water use calculations and irrigation scheduling.

Understanding the mechanism of photosynthetic seasonality in Amazonian evergreen forests is critical for its formulation in global climate and carbon cycle models. However, the control of the unexpected photosynthetic seasonality is highly uncertain. Here we use eddy-covariance data across a network of Amazonian research sites and a novel evapotranspiration (E) and two-leaf-photosynthesis-coupled model to investigate links between photosynthetic seasonality and climate factors on monthly scales. It reproduces the GPP seasonality (R-2=0.45-0.69) with a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 0.67-1.25gCm(-2)d(-1) and a Bias of -0.03-1.04gCm(-2)d(-1) for four evergreen forest sites. We find that the proportion of diffuse and direct sunlight governs the photosynthetic seasonality via their interaction with sunlit and shaded leaves, supported by a proof that canopy light use efficiency (LUE) has a strong linear relationship with the fraction of diffuse sunlight for Amazonian evergreen forests. In the transition from dry season to rainy season, incident total radiation (Q) decreased while LUE and diffuse fraction increased, which produced the large seasonal increase (similar to 34%) in GPP of evergreen forests. We conclude that diffuse radiation is an important environmental driver of the photosynthetic seasonality in tropical Amazon forests yet depending on light utilization by sunlit and shaded leaves. Besides, the GPP model simulates the precipitation-dominated GPP seasonality (R-2=0.40-0.69) at pasture and savanna sites. These findings present an improved physiological method to relate light components with GPP in tropical Amazon. Plain Language Summary Understanding the mechanism of photosynthetic seasonality in Amazonian evergreen forests is critical for its formulation in global climate and carbon cycle models. However, the control of the unexpected photosynthetic seasonality is highly uncertain. Here we use eddy-covariance data across a network of Amazonian research sites and a novel evapotranspiration (E) and two-leaf-photosynthesis-coupled model to investigate links between photosynthetic seasonality and climate factors on monthly scales. It reproduces the GPP seasonality (R2= 0.45-0.69) for four evergreen forest sites. We find that the proportion of diffuse and direct sunlight governs the photosynthetic seasonality via their interaction with sunlit and shaded leaves, supported by a proof that canopy light-use efficiency (LUE) has a strong linear relationship with the fraction of diffuse sunlight for Amazonian evergreen forests. We conclude that diffuse radiation is an important environmental driver of the photosynthetic seasonality in tropical Amazon forests yet depending on light utilization by sunlit and shaded leaves. Besides, the GPP model simulates the precipitation-dominated GPP seasonality (R2= 0.40 similar to 0.69) at pasture and savanna sites. These findings present an improved physiological method to relate light components with GPP in Amazon.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / With the increase of waterproofing in urban centers, mainly generated by urbanization, it is necessary to search for new sustainable structures that act not only quantitative control, but also in the qualitative part of the rainwater. The little infiltration in urban areas, turns out to contributes to the contamination of water bodies, since the waters emanating from the runoff tends to "wash" the streets and sidewalks dragging pollutants found there until receiving bodies, this first part of the rain is known as the first flush. As an example of this type of structure, we have infiltration trenches, evaporation, mixed permeable pavements, as well as detention tanks and other. In Brazil there are not many studies that can provide accurate about sizing and functioning of these structures over the long term. Therefore, a bioretention or mixed trench (evapotranspiration and infiltration) was constructed on the campus of the Federal University of Santa Maria, and monitored from January 2011 until the month of March 2013 The main objective of this study is to evaluate the ability of the trench in quality control of effluents drained of a catchment area (roof), as well as the ability of the structure to treat the first flush originating from the roof. The quantitative monitoring revealed that the structure had a good performance in all events of the monitoring period, where the maximum level recorded was 80 cm, while the useful level of the structure is 1.20 m. The analysis of the colmatation, revealed a decrease in infiltration rate from the beginning until the end of the survey, showing the occurrence of the process of colmatation in the structure. The qualitative evaluation showed that the top layer does not have sufficient capacity to filter the effluent in the patterns requested. The coliform analysis, showed absence for total coliform and E colli on analyzes of the plants. Based on the results obtained in this study, it can be said that the trench mixed emerges as an effective alternative in the treatment quality / quantity of stormwater effluent when properly sized and operated. / Com aumento da impermeabilização nos centros urbanos, gerado principalmente pela urbanização, faz-se necessário à busca por novas estruturas sustentáveis, que atuem não só no controle quantitativo, mas também na parte qualitativa das águas pluviais. A pouca infiltração nas áreas urbanas, acaba por contribuir para a contaminação dos corpos de água, uma vez que, as águas provindas do escoamento superficial tendem a lavar ruas e calçadas carreando os poluentes ali encontrados até os corpos receptores, essa primeira parcela da chuva, é conhecida como first flush Como exemplo desse tipo de estrutura, estão às trincheiras de infiltração, evapotranspiração, mistas, pavimentos permeáveis, assim como ,reservatórios de detenção entre outras. No Brasil, existem poucos estudos, que possam fornecer dados precisos de dimensionamento e funcionamento em longo prazo de tais estruturas. Dessa forma, uma biorretenção ou trincheira mista (evapotranspiração e infiltração) foi construída no campus da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, e monitorada no período de janeiro de 2011 até o mês de março de 2013. O objetivo principal deste estudo é avaliar a capacidade da estrutura no controle qualitativo dos efluentes escoados de uma área de captação (telhado), assim como, a capacidade da estrutura de tratar o first flush oriundo do mesmo. O monitoramento quantitativo revelou que a estrutura suportou todos os eventos ocorridos no período monitorado, onde o nível máximo registrado foi de 80 cm, enquanto o nível útil da estrutura é de 1.20 m. A análise da colmatação revelou um decréscimo na taxa de infiltração do inicio até o termino da pesquisa, ou seja, a estrutura colmatou A avaliação qualitativa mostrou que, a camada superior não tem capacidade suficiente para filtrar o efluente nos padrões requeridos, cabendo à análise se o efluente que infiltra no solo do fundo, teria ou não, capacidade de ser tratado pelo mesmo sem contamina-lo. A análise colimétrica apontou ausência de coliformes totais, termotolerantes e E colli nas análises das plantas. A partir dos resultados obtidos nesse estudo, pode-se dizer que a trincheira mista surge como uma alternativa eficiente no tratamento quali/quantitativo dos efluentes pluviais quando bem dimensionada e operada.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Soy is one of the most important agricultural products in the world and in Brazil, which is the second largest producer of culture. Due to the excellent combination of productivity, protein and oil content in grain, this culture has great agronomic interest. The supplemental irrigation and nitrogen fertilization during the development of soybean featuring ways to increase productivity and reduce the risks associated with drought. This study aims to evaluate the yield of soybean as the blades effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on the Eastern Plateau Region of Rio Grande do Sul. The work was conducted in the city of Ibirubá in Agricultural Guajuvira (28 ° 28'19,31 "S and 53º11'17,40" O), using the soybean cultivar BMX Active, and irrigation management was carried out according to evapotranspiration particular culture through the Class A pan installed near the area of the experiment . The design was a randomized block design with four replications in a factorial scheme with split plot. In the main plots were implanted irrigation related treatments (345.5; 432.3; 525.8; 568.1; 594.7 mm) and the sub-plots treatments related to nitrogen fertilization rates (0, 40 , 80, 100 and 120 kg N ha-1) using as source urea 46% nitrogen (N) in a single application in the R1 stage (early flowering). During the growing period, were evaluated some variables including plant height (AP), stem diameter (DC), the aboveground part of the plant (SDM) and the leaf area index (LAI). We also evaluated the crop yield components were: number of vegetable per plant (NLP), thousand grain weight (MMG) and grain yield (GY). Besides these, were evaluated at R2 stage of development of culture, the lump of dry matter (MSN) and number of nodes (NN) in soybean plants for the blade 568.1 mm and the doses 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha-1 of N. it can be concluded that the cultivar Active BMX, for Ibirubá RS region is dependent on water depth use. Irrigation management (120% ETc) may be indicated when maximum grain yield objective. The variables analyzed (AP, MSPA and IAF) were influenced by irrigation and only MMG production component was positively influenced by nitrogen fertilization. Nitrogen fertilization, regardless of the dose used was not a positive factor for the soybean grain yield of addition and is proven that soybean nodulation, the cultivar studied is affected by the application of nitrogen fertilizer. / A soja é um dos produtos agrícolas de maior importância no mundo e no Brasil, sendo este o segundo maior produtor mundial da cultura. Devido à excelente combinação entre produtividade, teores de proteína e óleo no grão, essa cultura apresenta grande interesse agronômico. A irrigação suplementar e a adubação nitrogenada durante o desenvolvimento da cultura da soja caracterizam formas de incremento na produtividade e redução nos riscos associados à estiagem. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar o rendimento da cultura da soja quanto ao efeito de laminas de irrigação e doses de adubação nitrogenada na Região do Planalto Médio do Rio Grande do Sul. O trabalho foi realizado no município de Ibirubá, na Agropecuária Guajuvira (28°28 19,31 S e 53º11 17,40 O), utilizando a cultivar de soja BMX Ativa, e o manejo da irrigação foi realizado conforme a evapotranspiração da cultura determinada através do Tanque Classe A instalado próximo a área do experimento. O delineamento utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições em esquema bifatorial com parcela subdivididas. Nas parcelas principais foram implantados os tratamentos relacionados à irrigação (345,5; 432,3; 525,8; 568,1; 594,7 mm) e, nas sub-parcelas os tratamentos relacionados às doses de adubação nitrogenada (0, 40, 80, 100 e 120 kg de N ha-1) utilizando como fonte a uréia 46% de nitrogênio (N) em aplicação única no estádio R1(início do florescimento). No decorrer do período de cultivo, foram avaliadas algumas variáveis, dentre elas altura de planta (AP), diâmetro de colmo (DC), matéria seca da parte aérea da planta (MSPA) e o índice de área foliar (IAF). Também foram avaliados os componentes de rendimento da cultura que foram: número de legume por planta (NLP), massa de mil grãos (MMG) e produtividade de grãos (PG). Além destes, foram avaliados no estádio R2 de desenvolvimento da cultura, o massa seca de nódulo (MSN) e número de nódulos (NN) em plantas de soja para a lâmina 568,1 mm e para as doses 0, 40, 80 e 120 kg ha-1 de N. Concluise que a cultivar BMX Ativa, para a região de Ibirubá RS, é dependente da lâmina de irrigação utilizada. O manejo da irrigação (120% da ETc) pode ser o indicado quando se objetiva máxima produtividade de grãos. As variáveis analisadas (AP, MSPA e IAF) foram influenciadas pela irrigação e apenas a componente de produção MMG foi influenciada positivamente pela adubação nitrogenada. A adubação nitrogenada, independente da dose utilizada, não foi um fator positivo para o acréscimo da produtividade de grãos da soja e fica comprovado que a nodulação da soja, da cultivar em estudo, é prejudicada pela aplicação de adubação nitrogenada.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Agronomy / Jay M. Ham / Land management practices such as burning and grazing may affect evapotranspiration (ET) and water balance of the tall grass prairie in the Flint Hills of eastern Kansas. Experiments were designed to estimate or measure the water balance of a stock-watering pond, and compare energy balance parameters and ET between grazed and ungrazed prairies. The hydrology of the native tallgrass prairie also was compared with mature stand of eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), a site that was formerly prairie but converted to woodland when prescribed burning was discontinued. Data were collected to encompass the seasonal and yearly changes in weather variability. A host of micrometeorological sensors were used to measure surface atmosphere exchange and water losses, including: eddy covariance towers on prairie and woodland sites, specialized through fall and stem flow equipment at the woodland site, and an instrumentation raft at the stock watering pond. Results of the stock pond study showed that, on average, evaporation accounted for 64% of the water loss, followed by seepage at 31%, cattle use at 3% and transpiration at 2%. Comparisons of grazed and ungrazed areas showed that grazing caused only small, 3 to 6 %, reductions in seasonal ET compared with ungrazed pastures despite large differences in vegetative cover. In the woodland study, the 50-yr-old cedar canopy intercepted 54% of the precipitation received, thus decreasing the amount of precipitation reaching the soil. Evapotranspiration from woodland and prairie sites were similar, but net carbon exchange was greater on the prairie. Thus, the apparent water use efficiency during he summer months was 3 times greater on the prairie. Net radiation at the woodland site was 100 W m-2 higher compared with the prairie. This caused an increase in the woodland sensible heat flux and midday Bowen ratios, yet woodland latent heat flux and ET was similar to the prairie during the study, factors that could affect regional climate. Land management decisions regarding grazing, prescribed burning, and stock pond design will impact the watershed hydrology and productivity of the tallgrass prairie.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Rapidly increasing global population is adding more pressure to the agricultural sector to produce more food to meet growing demands. However the sector is already faced with a challenge to reduce freshwater utilisation as this sector is currently using approximately 70% of global water freshwater resources. In South Africa, the agriculture sector utilizes approximately 62% of freshwater resources and contributes directly about5% to the Gross Domestic Product. South Africa is a water scarce country receiving less than 500mm/year of precipitation in most parts of the country, and consequently approximately 90% of the crops are grown under irrigation. Studies have evaluated irrigation practices and crop water use in the country. However information is lacking on the full impact of South African horticultural products on freshwater resources. The water footprint concept can be used to indicate the total and source (blue/green) of water used to produce the crops. Information about water footprint (WF) can be used for identifying opportunities to reduce the water consumption associated with production of vegetables and fruits at the field to farm- gate levels, including the more effective use of rainfall (green water) as opposed to water abstracted from rivers and groundwater (Blue water). It can also be used to understand water related risks associated with the production of crops and facilitate water allocation and management at catchment/water management scale. While the potential value of water footprint information is well recognized there is still inadequate knowledge on how best to determine the water footprints of various crops within a local context. The aim of this study was to determine the water footprint and the crop water productivity of navel oranges, pink lady apples and potatoes produced with the Olifant/Doorn water management area in South Africa.The water footprint of the navel oranges, pink lady apples and potatoes assessed following the water footprint network method was 125 litres/ kg, 108 litres/kg and 65 litres/ kg respectively. The study concluded that water footprint studies should be carried out on the whole catchment instead of one farm in order to assess the sustainability of the process.

Understanding the patterns and relationships between land surface productivity and the climatic condition is essential to predict the impact of climate change. This study aims to understand spatial temporal variability and relationships of land surface productivity using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and drought indices, mainly Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) and Standard Precipitation Evaporation Index (SPEI) across four ecoregions: Mojave, Sonoran, Apache Highlands and Chihuahua of the Southwest United States. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and land cover data, and Parameter Regression on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM) precipitation and temperature data were used for analysis. Using Mann-Kendall, I calculated the trends in annual and seasonal NDVI, SPI and SPEI datasets. I used the Pearson Correlation Coefficients to examine the response of integrated and monthly NDVI values to SPI and SPEI values. The positive and negative trends were found during the annual and monsoon seasons whereas only negative trends were found during the spring season for NDVI, SPI and SPEI values. The relationship between NDVI and coincident and antecedent SPEI values changed significantly by area and season for each of the ecoregions across the east-west seasonal precipitation gradient.

Measurements of the energy balances and net photosynthesis rates of two low productivity coniferous forest canopies (12 and 22 years old), were made successfully during both wet and dry growing seasons, using a modified Bowen Ratio method. Canopy conductances (gc) were calculated from canopy evaporation rates (E) using the Penman-Monteith equation. A model was developed to predict canopy growth and evaporation rates from basic soil and weather data, and compared with the measured data. The photosynthesis model was physiologically based, derived from recent work of Farquhar and coworkers. The canopy conductance model used an empirical approach, based on simple relationships with recorded environmental variables, while canopy E was predicted from the Penman-Monteith equation. Findings were: (1) Daytime E and canopy net photosynthesis rates (Fc) were generally lower in the younger canopy. (2) In the old canopy, E was more strongly decoupled from net irradiance (Rn) and more dependent on the atmospheric vapour pressure deficit (D) in accordance with the predictions of McNaughton and Jarvis (1983). (3) In the old canopy, Fc was significantly reduced by low soil water potential (Ψs) within the range of soil water storages at which measurements were made, while gc was less dependent on Ψs. From consideration of changes in intercellular C0₂ concentration, gc was not found normally limiting to Fc. (4) No simple relationship was apparent between solar irradiance (S) and F at the canopy level. However highest Fc and canopy water use efficiency ratios occurred on cloudy days with low air temperature and low D. (5) Night-time Fc measurements indicated that canopy respiration rates are generally very high and hence air temperature was a major factor limiting overall forest productivity. (6) The computer model could predict gc from four variables (D, S, root-zone soil water storage, W and time since dawn, t) with reasonable 2 success (r² 0.75). However, on days when gc was low, due to high D, E was occasionally significantly in error, because the Penman-Monteith equation is more sensitive to gc when the latter is low. Best agreement between measured and modelled E occurred on cloudy days when D was low and gc consequently high. (7) Values for the maximum rates of carboxylation, as limited by foliar carboxylase activity and electron transport rate, were set at one third of those reported by Farquhar and coworkers, in order to obtain best overall agreement between measured and modelled data. This requirement indicated that poor nutrition was also limiting to stand productivity. (8) Model prediction of canopy net photosynthesis was not satisfactory (r² 0.50), attributed mainly to using too simple an approach to estimating irradiance at the individual leaf level, and partly to unexplained variation in the measurements of Fc. In spite of its limitations, the model was found to respond realistically to changes in weather and Ψs, suggesting the approach was valid, and might be more successful with further development. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate