Do you think we can concentrate in noisy situations? I bet most of us would spontaneously answer “no” to this apparent simple question. Although we admit it is intuitively the best answer to give, this thesis aims to evidence that it is not always true and that, under certain circumstances, noise can be beneficial.<p><p>To appropriately discuss this question, it is necessary to answer others, such as: what is concentrating, paying attention? And, what is noise? Everyone has an idea of what attention is, and can give examples of situations in which it is required: school, work, driving, listening to our parents’ requests and so forth. But who could say that we can fully control attention like if we had a button to press, switching on and off according to the context? When we were little, my father used to say to my brothers and me: “Ok, you did not do this on purpose, but, please, pay attention to your attention”. Well, I can say now that it is not that easy and certainly not for everyone. In the population, around five percent of children and adults meet serious difficulties to pay attention. These people, more than others, often express their deficit with excessive distraction and/or hyperactivity as well as impulsivity. These multiple symptoms, for the individual who lives these behavioral excesses, represent an issue for his/her everyday-life: at school, at work, driving, trying to listen to his/her parents’ requests, etc.<p><p>Such symptoms refer to a syndrome called attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although the definition of this syndrome has changed across the course of History, the first descriptions of ADHD go back to 1798. Since, a lot has been written about this disorder, which we do not fully understand yet. Beyond these simple words, “inattention, impulsivity, hyperactivity”, a consequent number of etiologies (environmental, genetic, psychosocial), subtypes, comorbidities, and outcomes reflect the enormous heterogeneity of the phenotypes that are found in this syndrome. The main treatment offered to individuals with ADHD is a psychostimulant drug called methylphenidate. This medication, acting mainly on dopaminergic brain functioning, has proven efficacy regarding ADHD symptoms. However, it has several limitations. For instance, its use remains controversial in the society; it causes side effects and around 30% of individuals with ADHD do not respond to this treatment. These mentioned limitations, among others, highlight the necessity to find alternative ways to reduce ADHD symptoms.<p><p>This is the main objective of this thesis. To do so, we will investigate a counterintuitive phenomenon. In certain situations, what can be called noise might improve cognition and, consequently, potentially reduce the symptoms associated with ADHD. As mentioned in the beginning of this preamble, one could think that everything unnecessary in our direct environment is a potential distraction. Intuitively, a sensible person would suggest that individuals prone to distraction, as those with ADHD, would benefit from a stimulation- free environment to improve attention and reduce impulsivity as well as hyperactivity. However, already in the 1970’s, authors such as Zentall (1975) developed a theory supported by empirical data, i.e. the optimal stimulation theory, showing that adding stimulation in the environment (with pictures, posters, music, colors, etc.) might improve symptoms of children with ADHD. Successively, many theories and findings were developed and related to the observation that the environmental context affects attention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. For instance, the delay aversion theory (Sonuga-Barke, Taylor, Sembi, & Smith, 1992) suggests that, as children with ADHD are motivated to discount delay, the inattentive, overactive and impulsive behaviors are the expression of such aversion when they cannot avoid the delay. Related to this theory, adding stimulation in the environment has evidenced hyperactivity and impulsive choice reduction (Antrop, Roeyers, Van Oost, & Buysse, 2000; Antrop et al. 2006). Another theory advocates that the ADHD-related symptoms are explained in terms of energetic dysfunction (Sergeant, 2000). For instance, children with ADHD would meet difficulties to adjust their internal state (e.g. their arousal) required for a task. Accordingly, Sergeant (2000) suggested that performance is influenced not only by cognitive capacity but also by environmentally determined levels of arousal and showed the extent to which variations in these energetic factors can be managed to ensure optimal performance. A recent theory, called the Moderate Brain Arousal model (Sikstrom & Soderlund, 2007), particularly caught our interest. This theory postulates that white noise has beneficial effect on cognition. The first study of these authors (Soderlund, Sikstrom, & Smart, 2007) supported their hypothesis, showing that children with ADHD improved their episodic memory performance when they were exposed to white noise. This is, to our knowledge, the first study that evidenced such improvement with white noise, considered as extra-task stimulation, in children with ADHD.<p><p>The objective of this thesis is to investigate the potential beneficial effect of noise in individuals with and without ADHD regarding attentional and executive functioning. We will first review, in the first chapter of this Introduction, the general aspects of ADHD: definition criteria, prevalence, etiologies, treatments and outcomes. In the second chapter, we will present the main theories and findings related to this syndrome and to our main objective.<p>After the Introduction, we will describe the different experimental studies that we have carried out in the context of this thesis. Hereunder, we propose a short overview of these studies.<p>The first study of this thesis is a pilot study, aimed to validate the relevance to use event- related potentials (ERPs) in children with and without ADHD to further investigate noise effect. Accordingly, the second study investigated noise effect on behavioral and ERPs aspects in children with and without ADHD. To do so, children performed a visual cued Go/Nogo. They were also submitted to a neuropsychological assessment. Afterwards, in a third study, we used the same paradigm in adults with and without ADHD. Here, we also added a music condition to investigate another stimulation than noise.<p><p>In the fourth study, we decided to explore the effect of noise in a more ecological environment. To do so, we used a virtual reality tool that allowed to immerse the children in a virtual classroom environment. Children with and without ADHD were then assessed, being immersed in a classroom, with a continuous performance task (CPT) presented on the blackboard while several auditory and visual realistic distracters emerged during the test. Children performed the task with and without white noise exposure as well as a neuropsychological assessment. In the fifth study, we used the virtual classroom to investigate noise effect on interference control. Children with and without ADHD were submitted to a bimodal virtual reality Stroop (with auditory and visual target stimuli) and to a neuropsychological assessment. Finally, in a last study, we explored the effect of noise in consecutive young adults. Immersed in the virtual classroom, they were submitted to the CPT task with and without white noise. ADHD questionnaires and a neuropsychological assessment were also undertaken.<p><p>To end this thesis, we will discuss to what extent our studies allowed going one step further in the investigation of “on what, with whom, when and where” noise can be beneficial. We will discuss all our studies and results in the light of the theories and findings exposed in the Introduction. Finally, we will comment the clinical validation of these results.<p><p><p> / Doctorat en Sciences Psychologiques et de l'éducation / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

L’objectif de ces travaux de thèse était d’avancer dans la connaissance des effets du vieillissement normal sur les capacités d’attention soutenue et les mécanismes de contrôle attentionnel qui les sous-tendent. A cette fin, nous avons combiné l’utilisation de mesures comportementales, subjectives, et électrophysiologiques (potentiels évoqués). Les résultats comportementaux mettent en évidence des effets différenciés de l’âge sur les capacités d’attention soutenue en fonction de l’approche utilisée : détérioration dans les tâches de détection, et préservation dans les tâches d’inhibition. Les données électrophysiologiques mettent en évidence plusieurs spécificités des seniors dans l’engagement des mécanismes de contrôle attentionnel en situation d’attention soutenue : une activation globalement plus importante de ces mécanismes, une activation maintenue ou augmentée de ces mécanismes au fil de la tâche, et une topographie plus frontale des régions qui les sous-tendent. / The purpose of this project was to gain more knowledge about the effects of normal aging on sustained attention ability and attentional control mechanisms underlying this ability. To that end, we combined the use of behavioral, subjective and electrophysiological (event-related potentials) measures. Behavioral results evidenced differential effects of age on sustained attention ability according to the approach used: deterioration in detection tasks, and preservation in inhibition tasks. Electrophysiological data evidenced several special features of seniors regarding the recruitment of attentional control mechanisms in a situation of sustained attention: overall greater activation of these mechanisms, stable or increased activation of these mechanisms over the course of the task, and a more frontal topography of the regions underlying these mechanisms.

L’objectif de ce travail de thèse a été d’avancer dans les connaissances des mécanismes de contrôle cognitif sous-tendant les détériorations et fluctuations d’attention soutenue chez les patients souffrant de schizophrénie et les sujets sains. Dans ce but, nous avons combiné mesures comportementales, électrophysiologiques et subjectives. Nos résultats montrent une préservation des capacités d’attention soutenue chez les patients ainsi qu’une origine distincte des variations d’attention soutenue chez les patients. Les détériorations sont sous-tendues par une diminution du mode de contrôle réactif chez les patients et du mode proactif chez les témoins. De plus, différents précurseurs des lapses attentionnels ont été mis en évidence chez les patients selon l’état attentionnel. Les variations d’attention soutenue sont principalement liées à une diminution des ressources attentionnelles chez les patients, alors que chez les témoins, en fonction de l’état attentionnel, elles pourraient également être liées à un désengagement, une défaillance du contrôle cognitif. / The purpose of this project was to gain more knowledge about cognitive control mechanisms underlying deteriorations and fluctuation of sustained attention in schizophrenia and healthy participants. To that end, we combined the use of behavioral, electrophysiological (event-related potentials and functional connectivity) and subjective measures. Our results revealed spared sustained attention in schizophrenia and a distinct patterns of sustained attention changes in schizophrenia. Deteriorations are underlined by a decrease of reactive mode of cognitive control in patients and by a decrease of proactive mode in controls. Our results also highlighted slightly distinct patterns of precursors of lapses in sustained attention in schizophrenia according to the attentional state. Sustained attention changes are associated with resource depletion in patients, whereas in healthy participants, according to attentional state, they could also be caused by disengagement of cognitive control.

Cette thèse explore l'analyse de l'activité électrique du cerveau. Un défi important de ces signaux est leur grande variabilité à travers différents essais et/ou différents sujets. Nous proposons une nouvelle méthode appelée "adaptive waveform learning" (AWL). Cette méthode est suffisamment générale pour permettre la prise en compte de la variabilité empiriquement rencontrée dans les signaux neuroélectriques, mais peut être spécialisée afin de prévenir l'overfitting du bruit. La première partie de ce travail donne une introduction sur l'électrophysiologie du cerveau, présente les modalités d'enregistrement fréquemment utilisées et décrit l'état de l'art du traitement de signal neuroélectrique. La principale contribution de cette thèse consiste en 3 chapitres introduisant et évaluant la méthode AWL. Nous proposons d'abord un modèle de décomposition de signal général qui inclut explicitement différentes formes de variabilité entre les composantes de signal. Ce modèle est ensuite spécialisé pour deux applications concrètes: le traitement d'une série d'essais expérimentaux segmentés et l'apprentissage de structures répétées dans un seul signal. Deux algorithmes sont développés pour résoudre ces problèmes de décomposition. Leur implémentation efficace basée sur des techniques de minimisation alternée et de codage parcimonieux permet le traitement de grands jeux de données.Les algorithmes proposés sont évalués sur des données synthétiques et réelles contenant des pointes épileptiformes. Leurs performances sont comparées à celles de la PCA, l'ICA, et du template-matching pour la détection de pointe. / This thesis investigates the analysis of brain electrical activity. An important challenge is the presence of large variability in neuroelectrical recordings, both across different subjects and within a single subject, for example, across experimental trials. We propose a new method called adaptive waveform learning (AWL). It is general enough to include all types of relevant variability empirically found in neuroelectric recordings, but can be specialized for different concrete settings to prevent from overfitting irrelevant structures in the data. The first part of this work gives an introduction into the electrophysiology of the brain, presents frequently used recording modalities, and describes state-of-the-art methods for neuroelectrical signal processing. The main contribution of this thesis consists in three chapters introducing and evaluating the AWL method. We first provide a general signal decomposition model that explicitly includes different forms of variability across signal components. This model is then specialized for two concrete applications: processing a set of segmented experimental trials and learning repeating structures across a single recorded signal. Two algorithms are developed to solve these models. Their efficient implementation based on alternate minimization and sparse coding techniques allows the processing of large datasets. The proposed algorithms are evaluated on both synthetic data and real data containing epileptiform spikes. Their performances are compared to those of PCA, ICA, and template matching for spike detection.

Ce qui caractérise principalement le syndrome de Gilles de la Tourette (SGT), c’est la présence de tics moteurs et vocaux chez les individus qui en sont atteints. Toutefois, les tics ne sont que la pointe de l’iceberg pour plusieurs patients. Le SGT s’accompagne souvent de troubles concomitants. Les plus fréquents sont le trouble obsessionnel-compulsif et le trouble du déficit de l’attention avec ou sans hyperactivité. De plus, certaines études neuropsychologiques ont rapporté que les patients atteints du SGT présentaient des capacités d’inhibition réduites, ce qui seraient directement associées à la difficulté de contrôler les tics. Toutefois, plusieurs résultats contradictoires ont été publiés à ce sujet. Aussi, plusieurs hypothèses ont été avancées pour expliquer la génération des tics. Parmi celles-ci, on retrouve notamment certaines études qui ont identifié une suractivité des régions motrices du cerveau. Encore ici, il n’existe pas de conclusion définitive au sein de la littérature. On ne peut guérir du SGT, mais il existe plusieurs traitements qui permettent de diminuer la sévérité des symptômes. La pharmacothérapie est généralement efficace, mais s’accompagne souvent d’effets secondaires indésirables. La thérapie cognitive-comportementale s’avère est une avenue de traitement intéressante, car elle n’entraîne pas d’effets secondaires sur le plan physique. Bien que son efficacité ait été maintes fois démontrée, on ne connaît toujours pas les mécanismes neuronaux impliqués dans son fonctionnement. L’objectif général de cette thèse était de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement cognitif des patients atteints du SGT et d’identifier les substrats neurobiologiques qui sous-tendent ces fonctions. Nous souhaitions observer comment ces fonctions évoluent suite à une thérapie cognitive-comportementale permettant de diminuer les tics. Cet objectif général a été divisé en trois volets. Le premier volet visait à mieux comprendre et à quantifier les déficits d’inhibition retrouvés au sein du SGT, ainsi que les facteurs qui les modulent. Nous voulions également identifier les corrélats électrophysiologiques des capacités d’inhibition. Le deuxième volet concernait les processus de préparation et d’exécution des mouvements et leur lien avec la symptomatologie du SGT. Dans le troisième volet, nous avons investigué l’impact d’une thérapie cognitive-comportementale sur le fonctionnement cérébral des patients atteints du SGT. Nous avons tenté également d’identifier des prédicteurs du succès thérapeutique. Pour répondre à ces objectifs, nous avons d’abord réalisé une méta-analyse pour déterminer si les patients atteints du SGT présentaient des déficits d’inhibition et pour comprendre quels facteurs influençaient les capacités d’inhibition. À l’aide des potentiels évoqués, nous avons aussi évalué les corrélats électrophysiologiques des capacités d’inhibition (P300 No-Go) à l’aide d’une tâche de compatibilité stimulus-réponse qui incluait une composante No-Go. Nous avons aussi évalué les corrélats électrophysiologiques des processus de préparation et d’exécution motrice (sLRP et rLRP) durant cette même tâche. Finalement, nous avons investigué comment une thérapie cognitive-comportementale pouvait modifier l’activité du cerveau, à la fois durant la tâche de compatibilité stimulus-réponse (sLRP et rLRP) et durant une tâche oddball (P300; onde positive apparaissant environ 300 ms après la présentation d’un stimulus et associée à l’évaluation et à la catégorisation des stimuli). Nos résultats ont d’abord démontré que les patients atteints du SGT présentaient des déficits d’inhibition durant les tâches de Stroop, de complétion de phrases, de tracement de cercles, et la Continuous Performance Task. Toutefois, la performance durant les tâches de compatibilité stimulus-réponse et Go/No-Go était quant à elle normale. La présence d’un TDAH ainsi que des tics plus sévères étaient associés à des déficits d’inhibition plus importants. Notre étude électrophysiologique a révélé une P300 No-Go plus ample au niveau frontal chez les patients atteints du SGT, en comparaison avec des sujets sains. Ensuite, dans les conditions compatibles et incompatibles, les patients atteints du SGT ont présenté un délai relatif à l’amorce du sLRP ainsi qu’une plus grande amplitude du rLRP, suggérant ainsi un délai quant à la préparation des mouvements, ainsi qu’une plus grande activité des aires motrices du cerveau lors de l’exécution des mouvements. Cette activité s’est toutefois normalisée suite à la thérapie. La latence de l’amorce du sLRP incompatible combinée à l’amplitude de la N200 (onde négative apparaissant environ 200 ms après la présentation d’un stimulus et associée au contrôle cognitif) incompatible ont permis de prédire 43% de la variance associée à la diminution des tics après le traitement. Finalement, nous avons aussi observé que la thérapie permettait une normalisation de la P300 dans une tâche oddball, ce qui suggère que davantage de ressources cognitives sont désormais mobilisées dans les processus de mémoire de travail. Cette normalisation était localisée au niveau du cortex pariétal. Toutefois, l’activité cérébrale mesurée durant cette tâche ne permettait pas de prédire le succès thérapeutique. Nous avons donc démontré que les patients atteints du SGT présentaient un patron d’activité corticale différent de celui des participants contrôles, en lien avec les fonctions motrices et l’inhibition. Les changements relatifs à la symptomatologie du SGT induits par la thérapie cognitive-comportementale se reflètent aussi au niveau du fonctionnement cérébral des patients, où certaines modifications spécifiques peuvent être vues. / Tourette syndrome (TS) is mainly characterized by the presence of motor and vocal tics. However, tics are just the tip of the iceberg for many patients. TS often comes with concomitant disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In addition, some neuropsychological studies have reported that TS patients show diminished inhibitory functions, which could be reflected in an incapacity to inhibit tics. However, no consensus has been reached on the matter of inhibitory functions in TS. Also, several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the generation of tics. Some studies that have identified overactivity of motor regions of the brain as a cause of tic generation. Here again, there is no definitive conclusion in the literature. While TS cannot be fully cured, several treatment options exist. These treatments have been shown to reduce tic severity. Pharmacotherapy is usually effective in most patients but is often accompanied by unwanted side effects. Cognitive-behavioral therapy was found to be an interesting treatment avenue since it does not cause physical side effects. Although its effectiveness has been demonstrated many times, its neural mechanisms are still poorly understood. The objective of this thesis was to give a better understanding of the cognitive functioning of TS patients and to investigate the neurofunctional substrates underlying these functions. We also wanted to evaluate the impact of a cognitive-behavioral therapy on these functions. This general objective was divided into three specific objectives. The first objective was to better understand inhibitory deficits found in TS. We also wanted to identify the electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory functions. The second objectives concerned movement preparation and execution processes, as well as the link between these processes and the symptomatology of TS. For the third objective, we investigated the impact of a cognitive-behavioral therapy on the brain function of TS patients and tried to identify predictors of treatment outcome. To this end, we first performed a meta-analysis of inhibitory functions in TS patients. This meta-analysis first aimed to determine if TS patients truly exhibited inhibitory deficits, and then to understand the factors influencing such deficits. Using event-related potentials, we also evaluated the electrophysiological correlates of inhibitory function (P300 No-Go) using a stimulus-response compatibility task that included a No-Go component. We also evaluated the electrophysiological correlates of motor preparation and execution processes (sLRP and rLRP) during the same task. Finally, we investigated how cognitive-behavioral therapy could alter brain activity, both during the stimulus-response compatibility task (sLRP and rLRP) and during an oddball task (P300; a positive wave peaking approximately 300 ms after stimuls onset and associated to stimulus evaluation and categorization). Our results first showed that TS patients had inhibitory deficits during the Stroop task, sentence completion paradigm, circle tracing task, and the Continuous Performance Task. The performance during the stimulus-response compatibility and Go/No-Go compatibility tasks was however normal. The concomitant presence of ADHD as well as more severe tics were associated with greater inhibitory deficits. Our electrophysiological study revealed a larger frontal No-Go P300 in TS patients. Then, in compatible and incompatible conditions, TS patients presented a delayed sLRP onset, as well as a larger rLRP peak. This suggests a delay in movement preparation, as well as an overactivation of motor areas during movement execution. These measures were however normalized following cognitive-behavioral therapy. The latency of the incompatible sLRP onset and the incompatible N200 (a negative wave peaking approximately 200 ms after stimuls onset and associated to cognitive control) amplitude predicted 43% of the variance associated with the decrease in tic severity after treatment. Finally, we also observed that the therapy allowed a normalization of the P300 in an oddball task, which suggests that more cognitive resources are now mobilized by working memory processes. This normalization was localized to the parietal cortex. However, brain activity measured during this task was not predictive of treatment outcome. With regards to motor function and inhibition, TS patients display a pattern of cortical activity that differs from that of control participants. Changes in the symptomatology of TS induced by cognitive-behavioral therapy are also reflected in the cerebral functioning of patients, where specific normalization in brain activity can be found.

Au quotidien, notre attention sélective nous permet de sélectionner les informations pertinentes au regard de notre tâche et d'ignorer celles qui ne le sont pas, afin de maintenir un comportement cohérent avec nos buts. Néanmoins, dans certaines situations, un stimulus complètement non-pertinent peut capturer notre attention contre notre volonté et, de ce fait, produire un phénomène de distraction. La distraction a initialement été considérée comme essentiellement dépendante de la saillance perceptive des distracteurs. Cependant, de récentes études ont mis en évidence que les stimuli associés à l'obtention d'une récompense (i.e., disposant d'une histoire de récompense) sont également susceptibles de produire des effets de distraction particulièrement robustes et persistants (indépendamment de leur pertinence pour la tâche en cours et de leur saillance perceptive). Parallèlement, tout un autre champ de recherche a été consacré à l’étude du contrôle attentionnel qui peut être mis en place afin de prévenir une distraction par des stimuli visuellement saillants. Cependant, à ce jour, très peu de travaux ont tenté de manipuler la qualité du contrôle attentionnel qui peut être instauré pour éviter la distraction par des stimulus associés à une récompense. L'objectif de notre travail était donc de déterminer si, et si oui, dans quelles conditions, ces distracteurs pouvaient être ignorés efficacement ou, au contraire, pouvaient résister au contrôle attentionnel. Dans sept études, nous avons associé des stimuli visuels initialement neutres à une récompense (monétaire ou sociale) afin d’étudier leur impact sur les performances lorsqu’ils apparaissaient comme distracteurs dans des tâches recherche visuelle. Nous avons manipulé la qualité du contrôle attentionnel en faisant varier les contraintes perceptives (i.e., charge perceptive : Études 1 et 2), cognitives (i.e., charge cognitive : Étude 3) ou sensorielles (i.e., dégradation sensorielle : Études 4-7) imposées par la tâche. Nous avons mis en évidence que l'interférence provoquée par un distracteur associé à une forte récompense monétaire, contrairement à celle provoquée par des distracteurs uniquement saillants, peut résister à l'augmentation de la charge perceptive (Étude 1). L'analyse des potentiels cérébraux évoqués par ces distracteurs (Etude 2) suggère que cet effet puisse résulter d’une capture attentionnelle (N2pc) accrue en charge perceptive faible et d’une suppression attentionnelle (Pd) moins efficace en charge perceptive forte pour ces distracteurs. Contrairement à nos attentes, aucun effet de la récompense n'a été observé dans l’étude manipulant la charge cognitive (Étude 3), nous conduisant à proposer que notre manipulation ait pu drainer les ressources cognitives nécessaires à l'apprentissage de l’association distracteur-récompense. Ensuite, nous avons montré que l'augmentation de la pression temporelle (Étude 4-5), réputée pour favoriser la sélection précoce d'une cible, peut au contraire, dans certaines conditions, entrainer une plus grande difficulté à ignorer les distracteurs. Pour autant, dans ces conditions, le simple fait que des distracteurs récompensés puissent apparaître semble impacter encore plus négativement la sélection d'une cible que la pression temporelle elle-même. Enfin, nos deux dernières études (Études 6-7) ont mobilisé un cadre expérimental plus écologique, impliquant la recherche de cibles dans des photographies de scènes routières prises du point de vue d’un conducteur d’automobile et l’apparition de distracteurs récompensés sur l’écran d’un smartphone présent dans l’habitacle. Nous avons mis en évidence que la dégradation sensorielle de la cible (via une augmentation de l'intensité du brouillard) entraine une distraction plus importante pour des distracteurs associés à une récompense sociale, en particulier pour les personnes présentant un niveau élevé de FoMO (Fear of Missing Out ; peur de manquer une expérience sociale). [...] / In our daily activities, selective attention allow us to select task-relevant information among irrelevant ones, in order to maintain consistent, goal-directed behavior. However, sometimes, a completely irrelevant stimulus can capture our attention against our will and, as a result, produce a distraction phenomenon. Distraction was initially considered to be essentially dependent on the perceptual salience of the distractors. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that stimuli associated with reward outcome (i.e., with a reward history) are also likely to produce particularly robust and persistent distraction effects (regardless of their relevance to the task at hand and their perceptual salience). Alongside, a large body of works has been devoted to the study of attentional control, which could prevent distraction by perceptually salient distractors. However, to date, very little work has attempted to manipulate the quality of the attentional control that could be implemented to avoid distraction by reward history. The objective of our work was therefore to determine whether, and if so, under what conditions, reward-distractors could be ignored or, on the contrary, could resist attentional control. Seven studies were conducted with neutral visual stimuli associated with (monetary or social) reward outcome, in order to investigate how they could affect task performance when they appeared as distractors in visual search tasks. Attentional control was manipulated by varying the perceptual (i.e., perceptual load: Studies 1 and 2), cognitive (i.e., cognitive load: Study 3) or sensory (i.e., sensory degradation: Studies 4-7) demands imposed by the task. We have shown that high-reward distractor interference resists to perceptual load increase, unlike that caused by only salient distractor (Study 1). Our event-related potentials study (Study 2) suggests that this effect may be due to an enhanced attentional capture (N2pc) under low perceptual load and by a less effective attentional suppression (Pd) under high perceptual load for high-reward distractors. Next, contrary to our expectations, no effect of reward history was observed when manipulating cognitive load (Study 3), leading us to propose that our manipulation could have drained the cognitive resources necessary to learn the distractor-reward association. Then, we have shown that the increase in time pressure (Studies 4-5), known to promote the early selection of relevant targets, could also enhanced the difficulty to ignore distractors under some circumstances. Nevertheless, in these conditions, the mere fact that rewarded distractors may appear seems to increase the difficulty to ignore the distractors, more than the time pressure itself. Finally, our last two studies (Studies 6-7) mobilized a more ecological visual search task, involving pictures of driving situations taken from a driver point-of-view, in which reward distractors were displayed on the screen of a smartphone in the vehicle cabin. The sensory degradation of the target (achieved by increasing the fog density outside the car) has led to greater distraction for distractors paired with a social reward, especially for people with a high level of FoMO (Fear of Missing Out; that is, the pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding social experiences from which one is absent). These results are discussed in the light of the literature on distraction by reward history and attentional control, in order to integrate the reward history into these models. Moreover, our observations are discussed under the scope of applied researches that focused on driver distraction, in which our work has a particular resonance.

Objective: Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) aimed at restoring communication to people with severe neuromuscular disabilities often use event-related potentials (ERPs) in scalp-recorded EEG activity. Up to the present, most research and development in this area has been done in the laboratory with young healthy control subjects. In order to facilitate the development of BCI most useful to people with disabilities, the present study set out to: (1) determine whether people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and healthy, age-matched volunteers (HVs) differ in the speed and accuracy of their ERP-based BCI use; (2) compare the ERP characteristics of these two groups; and (3) identify ERP-related factors that might enable improvement in BCI performance for people with disabilities. Methods: Sixteen EEG channels were recorded while people with ALS or healthy age-matched volunteers (HVs) used a P300-based BCI. The subjects with ALS had little or no remaining useful motor control (mean ALS Functional Rating Scale-Revised 9.4 (±9.5SD) (range 0-25)). Each subject attended to a target item as the items in a 6. ×. 6 visual matrix flashed. The BCI used a stepwise linear discriminant function (SWLDA) to determine the item the user wished to select (i.e., the target item). Offline analyses assessed the latencies, amplitudes, and locations of ERPs to the target and non-target items for people with ALS and age-matched control subjects. Results: BCI accuracy and communication rate did not differ significantly between ALS users and HVs. Although ERP morphology was similar for the two groups, their target ERPs differed significantly in the location and amplitude of the late positivity (P300), the amplitude of the early negativity (N200), and the latency of the late negativity (LN). Conclusions: The differences in target ERP components between people with ALS and age-matched HVs are consistent with the growing recognition that ALS may affect cortical function. The development of BCIs for use by this population may begin with studies in HVs but also needs to include studies in people with ALS. Their differences in ERP components may affect the selection of electrode montages, and might also affect the selection of presentation parameters (e.g., matrix design, stimulation rate). Significance: P300-based BCI performance in people severely disabled by ALS is similar to that of age-matched control subjects. At the same time, their ERP components differ to some degree from those of controls. Attention to these differences could contribute to the development of BCIs useful to those with ALS and possibly to others with severe neuromuscular disabilities.

By 4.5 months infants listen longer to their names compared to matched foils, which is the earliest empirically demonstrated sign of word-form recognition. This ability develops gradually in the first year of life and becomes increasingly advanced. The present study investigated word-form recognition in 6-month-olds using event-related potentials (ERPs). To date, few studies have demonstrated word-form recognition at this age, and only one study has presented electrophysiological evidence. In addition, the present study investigated the effect of speech register on word-form recognition. Studies on language acquisition indicate that adjustments adults and older children make in interaction with infants are relevant for language learning. This speech register, commonly referred to as infant-directed speech (IDS), differs from adult-directed speech (ADS) in several respects. Studies on word-form recognition did typically not compare recognition effects for word forms familiarized (meaning trained) in IDS with word forms familiarized in ADS, however, the present study did. No recognition effects for either IDS or ADS were found. Moreover, there were no differences in ERP-responses for word forms familiarized in IDS compared to word forms familiarized in ADS. The main conclusion is that word-form recognition is still unstable at 6 months. / Vid 4.5 månaders ålder lyssnar spädbarn längre till sitt namn än andra liknande namn, vilket är det tidigast påvisade tecknet på igenkänning av ordformer. Förmågan utvecklas gradvis under det första levnadsåret och blir mer avancerad. Den aktuella studien undersökte igenkänning av ordformer hos 6 månaders spädbarn genom eventrelaterade potentialer (ERPer). I dagsläget har ett fåtal studier demonstrerat igenkänningseffekter vid den här åldern, och endast en studie har presenterat elektrofysiologiska bevis. Den aktuella studien undersökte även hur talstilen påverkar spädbarns igenkänning av ordformer. Studier inom barns språkutveckling indikerar att anpassningar som vuxna och äldre barn gör i interaktion med spädbarn är relevanta för språkinlärningen. Den här talstilen, ofta kallad barnriktat tal (BRT) skiljer sig från vuxenriktat tal (VRT) i flera avseenden. Studier som har undersökt igenkänning av ordformer hos spädbarn har inte jämfört igenkänningseffekter för ordformer som presenterats (dvs. tränats) i BRT med ordformer som presenterats i VRT, vilket den aktuella studien gör. Inga igenkänningseffekter påvisades för BRT eller VRT. Vidare fanns inga skillnader i ERP-responsen för ordformer presenterade i BRT jämfört med ordformer presenterade i VRT. Slutsatsen är att spädbarns igenkänning av ordformer fortfarande är instabil vid 6 månader.

The mismatch negativity (MMN) is a specific event-related potential (ERP) component used frequently in the observation of auditory processing. The MMN is elicited by a deviant stimulus randomly presented in the presence of repeating stimuli. The current study utilized the MMN response in order to determine the temporal (timing) and linguistic processing of natural and synthetic vowel stimuli. It was hypothesized that a significant MMN response would be elicited by natural and synthetic vowel stimuli. Brain mapping of the MMN response was hypothesized to yield temporal resolution information, which would provide detail regarding the sequential processing differences between natural and synthetic vowel stimuli. It was also hypothesized that the location of dipoles within the cortex would provide information pertaining to differences in cortical localization of processing for natural and synthetic stimuli. Vowel stimuli were presented to twenty participants (10 females and 10 males between the ages of 18 and 26 years) in a three-forced-choice response paradigm. Data from behavioral responses, reaction times, and ERPs were recorded for each participant. Results demonstrated that there were differences in the behavioral and electrophysiological responses between natural and synthesized vowels presented to young, normal hearing adults. In addition, significant MMN responses were evoked by both natural and synthetic vowel stimuli. Greater reaction times existed for the synthetic vowel phonemes compared to the natural vowel phonemes. Electrophysiological differences were primarily seen in the processing of the synthetic /u/ stimuli. Scalp distribution of cognitive processing was essentially the same for naturally produced phonemes. Processing of synthetic phonemes also had similar scalp distributions; however, the synthetic /u/ phoneme required more complex processing compared to the synthetic /æ/ phoneme. The most significant processing localizations were located in the superior temporal gyrus, which is known for its role in linguistic processing. Continued processing in the frontal lobe was observed, suggesting continual evaluation of natural and synthetic phonemes throughout processing.

Current models of spoken word recognition have been predominantly based on studies of Indo-European languages. As a result, little is known about the recognition processes involved in the perception of tonal languages (e.g., Mandarin Chinese), and the role of lexical tone in speech perception. One view is that tonal languages are processed phonologically through individual segments, while another view is that they are processed lexically as a whole. Moreover, a recent study claimed to be the first to discover an early phonological processing stage in Mandarin (Huang et al., 2014). There seems to be a lack of investigations concerning tonal languages, as no clear conclusions have been made about the nature of tonal processes, or a model of spoken word recognition that best incorporates lexical tone. The current study addressed these issues by presenting 18 native Mandarin speakers with aural sentences with medial target words, which either matched or mismatched the preceding visually presented sentences with medial target words (e.g, 家 /jia1/ “home”). Violation conditions involved target words that differed in the following ways: tone violation, where only the tone was different (e.g., 价 /jia4/ “price”), onset violation, where only the onset was different (e.g., 虾 /xia1/ “shrimp”), and syllable violation, where both the tone and the onset were different (e.g., 糖 /tang2/ “candy”). We did not find evidence for an early phonological processing stage in Mandarin. Instead, our findings indicate that Mandarin syllables are processed incrementally through phonological segments and that lexical tone is strongly associated with semantic access. These results are discussed with respect to modifications for existing models in spoken word recognition to incorporate the processes involved with tonal language recognition. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)