摘要 在知識經濟時代，專利侵權訴訟的重要性與日俱增。面對專利紛爭全球化的趨勢，台灣的專利侵權訴訟機制也需有所變革。其中，最重要也最亟需改善的部分，即是專利侵權訴訟的審前階段。此舉不僅得以落實憲法所保障的程序權，更是營造優良知識經濟環境的必經途徑。 專利侵權訴訟與一般傳統訴訟不同，係為法律面、科技面、管理面三者的結合，具有其特殊性，諸如：訴訟標的之權利範圍非屬明確、具有高度的商業利益色彩、訴訟成本高昂、專業性及科技知識含量高、準備與取證程序繁複、公法與私法交錯的領域等。吾人首應正視上開特性，在無體財產權的法理上，建構異於傳統訴訟的智慧財產訴訟觀。其次，現階段台灣專利侵權訴訟的運作模式，存有若干亟待改善之缺失，包括：法官專業化程度不足、不當使用或依賴鑑定制度、訴訟時程冗長、法院缺乏良善的案件管理、當事人與律師尚未能落實其協力義務、事證蒐集程序未臻精緻等。 欲改善台灣現今專利侵權訴訟的運作缺失，可以從參考美國制度著手。美國現為專利侵權訴訟案件量最多的國家，司法判決所累積的關於如何完善專利訴訟的各種實務見解以及學術文獻討論也最為豐富，周邊制度如律師、專利代理人及專家證人等也最為發達完備。美國專利侵權訴訟亦為民事訴訟之一種，由美國聯邦訴訟規則所規範，受聯邦法院所管轄。第一審為事實審，由聯邦地區法院負責審理，由陪審團或法官作最終的決定。美國專利侵權訴訟的審前程序，最特出的部分是專利權利範圍的界定與事證蒐集程序，並由法官之案件管理貫穿其中。因為審前訴訟的精緻化，加上訴訟成本高昂，美國的專利侵權訴訟案件進入最後審訊程序者不到百分之五，當事人在審前階段即以和解等方式解決紛爭。另外，律師在美國專利訴訟的審前階段也扮演了重要角色。在事證蒐集程序中，律師需協助當事人開示己方的事證，以及解讀、過濾對造所開示的事證；訴訟法規與執業倫理對於違反訴訟義務的律師並賦予相當的制裁。 欲改善台灣專利侵權訴訟的審前程序，首應注重專利權利範圍的界定，並由當事人及律師就專利的有效性與否作論辯攻防。其次，法院應加強案件管理，讓訴訟時程及早確定，並藉由中間裁判的方式將紛爭於審前階段解決。最重要的是，在事證蒐集程序上，可採行美國的事證開示程序，將兩造各自擁有的事證及早揭露，並同時注意當事人秘匿特權的保護。 在日、韓之後，台灣也即將設立智財專業法院，本研究認為，應在訴訟程序上作根本的變革，以符合全球化專利訴訟的需求。在訴訟法理方面，以一元化的審判程序解決專利侵權紛爭、職權調查主義的限縮與排除、客觀舉證責任的緩和等，均是未來立法時值得採納的方向。

L'utilisation de l'expérience comme un mode de détermination des faits, c'est-à-dire comme un élément qui comble les lacunes dans l'ensemble des éléments de preuve dans le procès civil, est un thème quelque peu tabou. La doctrine est souvent basée sur la prémisse voulant que le décideur rende une décision uniquement en vertu des éléments de preuve et qu'il doit absolument s'abstenir d'insérer aux constatations quoi que ce soit qui n'est pas présent dans les éléments de preuve. Cette vision est éloignée de la réalité juridique. Dans la première partie, nous allons aborder les principes procéduraux qui empêchent l'utilisation de l'expérience comme mode de détermination des faits. Ce sont le principe de la reconstruction de l'événement du passé, le principe de l'abstraction des connaissances acquises hors du procès et le principe de l'exclusion de la preuve par ouï-dire. Ensuite, nous portons notre attention sur les différents types d'expérience, c'est-à-dire l'expérience profane, divisible en bon sens et sens commun, et l'expérience scientifique, ainsi sur leurs modes de fonctionnement dans le procès civil. La première partie se termine par une brève confrontation des différents types d'expérience avec les principes procéduraux. La deuxième partie est consacré à l'analyse de l'expérience dans trois instruments juridiques: la connaissance d'office, la présomption de fait et le témoignage d'expert. Nous nous intéressons principalement à vérifier si l'expérience fonctionne à l'intérieur de ces instruments juridiques comme mode de détermination des faits et ensuite quelles sont les limites que le droit pose à l'expérience dans ce rôle. L'analyse va confirmer que le principal instrument par lequel l'expérience comme mode de détermination des faits pénètre dans le procès civil est la présomption de fait. / The theme of the use of experience as a mode of fact findings, i.e. as an element which fills the gaps in a totality of evidence in the civil procedure, is somewhat tabooed. The doctrine is frequently based upon the premise that a decision-maker should render a decision solely on the basis of evidence and that he should completely abstain from inserting into the fact findings anything which is not present in the evidence. This vision is distant from the legal reality. In the first part, three procedural principles which prevent the experience from the use as a mode of fact findings will be treated. The principles in question are the principle of reconstruction of the past event, the principle of setting aside the knowledge obtained out of the procedure and the principle of exclusion of hearsay evidence. Then the attention is paid to different types of experience (i.e. the lay experience, divisible into "bon sens" and into common sense, and the scientific experience) and to the methods of their fonctionning in the civil procedure. The first part is concluded by a brief confrontation of different types of experience with the procedural principles. The second part is dedicated to an analysis of the experience in the three legal instruments: judicial notice, presumption of fact and expert testimony. The interest is focused especially on verification whether the experience works inside the legal instruments as a mode of facts findings and then what are the limits which the law fixes to the experience in this role. The research will confirm that the principal instrument by which the experience as a mode of fact findings penetrates into the civil procedure is the presumption of fact.

Neste trabalho foram analisados trinta processos judiciais, que tramitam pelos Fóruns Regionais Cíveis de São Paulo, capital e interior e Instituições Periciais da Capital. Fez-se as extrações individualizadas de cada processo, objetivando definir as principais causas e documentos juntados ao mesmo e conseqüências de cada condição. Iniciou-se pela importância prática do tema para efeito de evolução médico-social. Buscou-se estudar a visão da relação médico-paciente, mesmo durante a demanda, a informação ao paciente e seus familiares dos procedimentos e limitadores do ato médico; o documental técnico jurídico juntado ao processo; o preparo técnico-jurídico do médico e, se, a propositura de ação depende da formação e especialização do profissional. Foram analisados processos judiciais de primeira instância no período de 1996 a 2002 correlacionados à cirurgias do aparelho digestivo. Usou-se como parâmetro de análise exclusivamente os documentos juntados aos autos onde buscou-se a existência clara da quebra da relação médico-paciente, a existência de consentimento informado, a verificação do documental juntado à defesa pelas partes ou solicitação judicial e a qualificação do profissional envolvido nas ações. Finalmente, analisados os resultados, chegamos a conclusão que a melhor forma para profilaxia da ação cível indenizatória por erro médico é: a boa relação médico-paciente; a manutenção de prontuário médico preenchido, legível, com carimbo e assinatura; o consentimento informado, que, deve ser elaborado, porém, por si só não é suficiente; e a condição técnico curricular do profissional não é fator atenuante para propositura da ação. / Thirty legal proceedings, which are in progress before the Regional Civil Courts both the Capital and the countryside of the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, besides Examination Institutions in the Capital city of Sao Paulo, have been analyzed in this work Individual excerpts of each case were taken with the purpose of defining the main causes and documentation attached to them as well the consequences of each condition. The practical importance of the subject for the medical-social evolution has been addressed in the first place. The physician/patient relationship view was sought to be studied, even during the claim, as well as the information of the medical procedures and limitations to the patient and his or her family; the technical/legal documentation attached to the case; the physician technical/legal preparation and whether the filing of the action depends on the professional education and specialization. Trial court cases from 1996 to 2002 related to digestive system surgery have been analyzed. The analysis subject hereof has been based exclusively on the documents attached to the case record, where attempts have been made to evidence the clear existence of the breach of the physician/patient relationship, the existence of informed consent, the examination of the documentation attached to the defense by the parties or court request, and the qualification of the professional involved in the actions. Finally, after the results have been analyzed, a conclusion was reached that the best way of avoiding a civil action for damages due to medical malpractice includes: a good relationship between doctors and patients; keeping the patient record completed, legible, stamped, and signed; informed consent, which must be prepared but it is not sufficient on its own; and the professional technical experience and background do not constitute a mitigating circumstance for filing the action.

L'utilisation de l'expérience comme un mode de détermination des faits, c'est-à-dire comme un élément qui comble les lacunes dans l'ensemble des éléments de preuve dans le procès civil, est un thème quelque peu tabou. La doctrine est souvent basée sur la prémisse voulant que le décideur rende une décision uniquement en vertu des éléments de preuve et qu'il doit absolument s'abstenir d'insérer aux constatations quoi que ce soit qui n'est pas présent dans les éléments de preuve. Cette vision est éloignée de la réalité juridique. Dans la première partie, nous allons aborder les principes procéduraux qui empêchent l'utilisation de l'expérience comme mode de détermination des faits. Ce sont le principe de la reconstruction de l'événement du passé, le principe de l'abstraction des connaissances acquises hors du procès et le principe de l'exclusion de la preuve par ouï-dire. Ensuite, nous portons notre attention sur les différents types d'expérience, c'est-à-dire l'expérience profane, divisible en bon sens et sens commun, et l'expérience scientifique, ainsi sur leurs modes de fonctionnement dans le procès civil. La première partie se termine par une brève confrontation des différents types d'expérience avec les principes procéduraux. La deuxième partie est consacré à l'analyse de l'expérience dans trois instruments juridiques: la connaissance d'office, la présomption de fait et le témoignage d'expert. Nous nous intéressons principalement à vérifier si l'expérience fonctionne à l'intérieur de ces instruments juridiques comme mode de détermination des faits et ensuite quelles sont les limites que le droit pose à l'expérience dans ce rôle. L'analyse va confirmer que le principal instrument par lequel l'expérience comme mode de détermination des faits pénètre dans le procès civil est la présomption de fait. / The theme of the use of experience as a mode of fact findings, i.e. as an element which fills the gaps in a totality of evidence in the civil procedure, is somewhat tabooed. The doctrine is frequently based upon the premise that a decision-maker should render a decision solely on the basis of evidence and that he should completely abstain from inserting into the fact findings anything which is not present in the evidence. This vision is distant from the legal reality. In the first part, three procedural principles which prevent the experience from the use as a mode of fact findings will be treated. The principles in question are the principle of reconstruction of the past event, the principle of setting aside the knowledge obtained out of the procedure and the principle of exclusion of hearsay evidence. Then the attention is paid to different types of experience (i.e. the lay experience, divisible into "bon sens" and into common sense, and the scientific experience) and to the methods of their fonctionning in the civil procedure. The first part is concluded by a brief confrontation of different types of experience with the procedural principles. The second part is dedicated to an analysis of the experience in the three legal instruments: judicial notice, presumption of fact and expert testimony. The interest is focused especially on verification whether the experience works inside the legal instruments as a mode of facts findings and then what are the limits which the law fixes to the experience in this role. The research will confirm that the principal instrument by which the experience as a mode of fact findings penetrates into the civil procedure is the presumption of fact.

Neste trabalho foram analisados trinta processos judiciais, que tramitam pelos Fóruns Regionais Cíveis de São Paulo, capital e interior e Instituições Periciais da Capital. Fez-se as extrações individualizadas de cada processo, objetivando definir as principais causas e documentos juntados ao mesmo e conseqüências de cada condição. Iniciou-se pela importância prática do tema para efeito de evolução médico-social. Buscou-se estudar a visão da relação médico-paciente, mesmo durante a demanda, a informação ao paciente e seus familiares dos procedimentos e limitadores do ato médico; o documental técnico jurídico juntado ao processo; o preparo técnico-jurídico do médico e, se, a propositura de ação depende da formação e especialização do profissional. Foram analisados processos judiciais de primeira instância no período de 1996 a 2002 correlacionados à cirurgias do aparelho digestivo. Usou-se como parâmetro de análise exclusivamente os documentos juntados aos autos onde buscou-se a existência clara da quebra da relação médico-paciente, a existência de consentimento informado, a verificação do documental juntado à defesa pelas partes ou solicitação judicial e a qualificação do profissional envolvido nas ações. Finalmente, analisados os resultados, chegamos a conclusão que a melhor forma para profilaxia da ação cível indenizatória por erro médico é: a boa relação médico-paciente; a manutenção de prontuário médico preenchido, legível, com carimbo e assinatura; o consentimento informado, que, deve ser elaborado, porém, por si só não é suficiente; e a condição técnico curricular do profissional não é fator atenuante para propositura da ação. / Thirty legal proceedings, which are in progress before the Regional Civil Courts both the Capital and the countryside of the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, besides Examination Institutions in the Capital city of Sao Paulo, have been analyzed in this work Individual excerpts of each case were taken with the purpose of defining the main causes and documentation attached to them as well the consequences of each condition. The practical importance of the subject for the medical-social evolution has been addressed in the first place. The physician/patient relationship view was sought to be studied, even during the claim, as well as the information of the medical procedures and limitations to the patient and his or her family; the technical/legal documentation attached to the case; the physician technical/legal preparation and whether the filing of the action depends on the professional education and specialization. Trial court cases from 1996 to 2002 related to digestive system surgery have been analyzed. The analysis subject hereof has been based exclusively on the documents attached to the case record, where attempts have been made to evidence the clear existence of the breach of the physician/patient relationship, the existence of informed consent, the examination of the documentation attached to the defense by the parties or court request, and the qualification of the professional involved in the actions. Finally, after the results have been analyzed, a conclusion was reached that the best way of avoiding a civil action for damages due to medical malpractice includes: a good relationship between doctors and patients; keeping the patient record completed, legible, stamped, and signed; informed consent, which must be prepared but it is not sufficient on its own; and the professional technical experience and background do not constitute a mitigating circumstance for filing the action.

The purpose of this thesis is to develop a comprehensive process for identifying and addressing primarily constitutional, medico-legal and liability issues, and in addition ethical, social and scientific issues related to the psychiatric and psychology professions in South Africa. In fulfilling this purpose, a comprehensive search is conducted of relevant historical, ethical, philosophical and clinical aspects pertaining to psychiatry and psychology, as well as an evaluation of the current juridical framework regarding the legal liability of the psychiatrist and psychologist balanced against the constitutional rights of the mentally disordered patient in South Africa. Recommendations are made for the establishment of any new controls needed to mitigate and prevent the exposure of mentally disordered patients, further attempting to provide specific remedies to adapt the current juridical framework in South Africa. The examination is conducted within the framework of the South African and United Kingdom's legal systems. Focus is placed on aspects of medical law, human rights law (as envisaged in the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996), criminal law and the law of delict and, to a lesser extent, administrative law and the law of evidence. / Law / LL.D.

Transexualismo é definido como o desejo de viver e ser aceito como pertencente ao sexo oposto. É usualmente acompanhado por sentimento de desconforto ou inadequação em relação ao sexo anatômico, associado a desejo de se transformar cirúrgica e hormonalmente para tornar o corpo o mais congruente possível com o sexo pretendido. Com essa alteração, surge ainda a necessidade de adequação jurídica da pessoa física por meio de processo cível para mudança do nome e do sexo jurídicos, adequando-se, assim, o status civil/social. O objetivo deste trabalho foi observar como os laudos psicológicos poderiam ou não colaborar nas decisões judiciais, de acordo com a análise de sentenças judiciais para mudança de prenome em transexuais masculinos e femininos, submetidos ou não a cirurgia de transgenitalização. Realizamos levantamento por amostragem, que inicialmente caracterizou as variáveis sociais e demográficas dessa população e, posteriormente, sistematizamos os dados encontrados. A população estudada, que pleiteia a mudança do registro civil, foi mapeada a partir de dados de sentenças e processos para mudança de prenome, traçando-se um perfil nacional segundo os critérios definidos pelo SUS. Buscamos a amostra nos quatro centros credenciados para o processo transexualizador (Portaria no 457, de 19 de agosto de 2008). Encontramos 55 sujeitos que entraram com processo de mudança de prenome e/ou prenome e sexo, matriculados/acompanhados nos referidos hospitais. Observamos uma proporção de de 9:2 entre homem para mulher (MTF) e mulher para homem (FTM), semelhante ao que se relata na literatura internacional (4:1). Quanto às sentenças, apenas 5,50% (três) dos processos foram indeferidos, correspondentes a sujeitos do sexo biologico masculino que ainda não haviam sido submetidos à cirurgia. Observamos uma associação entre cirurgia e deferimento da mudança de prenome (p = 0,001). Em apenas 10,90% (seis) sentenças analisadas, havia menção ao laudo psicológico, que, portanto, foi omitido nas demais, 82,10% (49). Quando presentes, os laudos não foram elaborados por profissionais dos centros credenciados para o processo transexualizador, descaracterizandose como objetos deste estudo. Os resultados sugerem que os laudos psicológicos não influem na decisão judicial nos processos de mudança de prenome entre pacientes transexuais e que a realização prévia da cirurgia de readequação sexual está associada a um maior índice de êxito no pleito dos pacientes / Transsexualism is defined as a desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort (or inappropriateness) with one\'s anatomic sex, and a wish to have surgical and hormonal treatment to make one\'s body as congruent as possible with one\'s preferred sex. This change triggers the need for legal adjustment of the individual through civil proceedings for change the legal name and sex/gender. This study\'s objective was to observe whether psychological appraisals may or may not influence the judicial decision, by the analysis of the judges\' sentences for the change of forename in transsexual men and women, whether or not they underwent reassignment surgery. We performed a sample study where we initially characterized the social and demographic variables of this population, and then we systematized the data found. The population studied, who presented a plea to change theirs forename at the civil register, was mapped from data of trial sentences. From this data we present a national profile of patients according to criteria for the processo transexualizador, the treatment as laid down by the Brazilian National Health Care System. We seeked our sample at the four centers licensed for the \"processo transexualizador\" (Ordinance 457 of the Brazilian Health Care Ministry, dated August 19, 2008). We have found 55 subjects which entered pleas for changes of forename and / or pleas for changes of forename and sex. This subjects should be registered patients or be monitored at these hospitals. We found a proportion of 9:2 male to female (MTF) and female to male (FTM) patients, this finding is similar to reports from the international literature (4:1). When we analyzed for outcome of the judgments, we found that 5.50% (three) cases were rejected. This three cases belonged to biological male gender and had not yet been submitted to surgery. We observed a association between surgery and plea for first name\'s change (p = 0.001). Only 10.90% (six) of the sentences analyzed mentioned the psychological appraisal, which was omitted in 82.10% (49) of the sentences. We also found that when the psychological appraisals were present they were not issued by professionals working at licensed centers, therefore these did not meet the criteria for the study. Our findings suggest that the psychological appraisals do not affect the judicial decision over the pleas for forename changes among transsexual patients and the prior execution of the reassignment surgery is associated to a higher success rate in the patients\' litigations

The purpose of this thesis is to develop a comprehensive process for identifying and addressing primarily constitutional, medico-legal and liability issues, and in addition ethical, social and scientific issues related to the psychiatric and psychology professions in South Africa. In fulfilling this purpose, a comprehensive search is conducted of relevant historical, ethical, philosophical and clinical aspects pertaining to psychiatry and psychology, as well as an evaluation of the current juridical framework regarding the legal liability of the psychiatrist and psychologist balanced against the constitutional rights of the mentally disordered patient in South Africa. Recommendations are made for the establishment of any new controls needed to mitigate and prevent the exposure of mentally disordered patients, further attempting to provide specific remedies to adapt the current juridical framework in South Africa. The examination is conducted within the framework of the South African and United Kingdom's legal systems. Focus is placed on aspects of medical law, human rights law (as envisaged in the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996), criminal law and the law of delict and, to a lesser extent, administrative law and the law of evidence. / Law / LL.D.

Transexualismo é definido como o desejo de viver e ser aceito como pertencente ao sexo oposto. É usualmente acompanhado por sentimento de desconforto ou inadequação em relação ao sexo anatômico, associado a desejo de se transformar cirúrgica e hormonalmente para tornar o corpo o mais congruente possível com o sexo pretendido. Com essa alteração, surge ainda a necessidade de adequação jurídica da pessoa física por meio de processo cível para mudança do nome e do sexo jurídicos, adequando-se, assim, o status civil/social. O objetivo deste trabalho foi observar como os laudos psicológicos poderiam ou não colaborar nas decisões judiciais, de acordo com a análise de sentenças judiciais para mudança de prenome em transexuais masculinos e femininos, submetidos ou não a cirurgia de transgenitalização. Realizamos levantamento por amostragem, que inicialmente caracterizou as variáveis sociais e demográficas dessa população e, posteriormente, sistematizamos os dados encontrados. A população estudada, que pleiteia a mudança do registro civil, foi mapeada a partir de dados de sentenças e processos para mudança de prenome, traçando-se um perfil nacional segundo os critérios definidos pelo SUS. Buscamos a amostra nos quatro centros credenciados para o processo transexualizador (Portaria no 457, de 19 de agosto de 2008). Encontramos 55 sujeitos que entraram com processo de mudança de prenome e/ou prenome e sexo, matriculados/acompanhados nos referidos hospitais. Observamos uma proporção de de 9:2 entre homem para mulher (MTF) e mulher para homem (FTM), semelhante ao que se relata na literatura internacional (4:1). Quanto às sentenças, apenas 5,50% (três) dos processos foram indeferidos, correspondentes a sujeitos do sexo biologico masculino que ainda não haviam sido submetidos à cirurgia. Observamos uma associação entre cirurgia e deferimento da mudança de prenome (p = 0,001). Em apenas 10,90% (seis) sentenças analisadas, havia menção ao laudo psicológico, que, portanto, foi omitido nas demais, 82,10% (49). Quando presentes, os laudos não foram elaborados por profissionais dos centros credenciados para o processo transexualizador, descaracterizandose como objetos deste estudo. Os resultados sugerem que os laudos psicológicos não influem na decisão judicial nos processos de mudança de prenome entre pacientes transexuais e que a realização prévia da cirurgia de readequação sexual está associada a um maior índice de êxito no pleito dos pacientes / Transsexualism is defined as a desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort (or inappropriateness) with one\'s anatomic sex, and a wish to have surgical and hormonal treatment to make one\'s body as congruent as possible with one\'s preferred sex. This change triggers the need for legal adjustment of the individual through civil proceedings for change the legal name and sex/gender. This study\'s objective was to observe whether psychological appraisals may or may not influence the judicial decision, by the analysis of the judges\' sentences for the change of forename in transsexual men and women, whether or not they underwent reassignment surgery. We performed a sample study where we initially characterized the social and demographic variables of this population, and then we systematized the data found. The population studied, who presented a plea to change theirs forename at the civil register, was mapped from data of trial sentences. From this data we present a national profile of patients according to criteria for the processo transexualizador, the treatment as laid down by the Brazilian National Health Care System. We seeked our sample at the four centers licensed for the \"processo transexualizador\" (Ordinance 457 of the Brazilian Health Care Ministry, dated August 19, 2008). We have found 55 subjects which entered pleas for changes of forename and / or pleas for changes of forename and sex. This subjects should be registered patients or be monitored at these hospitals. We found a proportion of 9:2 male to female (MTF) and female to male (FTM) patients, this finding is similar to reports from the international literature (4:1). When we analyzed for outcome of the judgments, we found that 5.50% (three) cases were rejected. This three cases belonged to biological male gender and had not yet been submitted to surgery. We observed a association between surgery and plea for first name\'s change (p = 0.001). Only 10.90% (six) of the sentences analyzed mentioned the psychological appraisal, which was omitted in 82.10% (49) of the sentences. We also found that when the psychological appraisals were present they were not issued by professionals working at licensed centers, therefore these did not meet the criteria for the study. Our findings suggest that the psychological appraisals do not affect the judicial decision over the pleas for forename changes among transsexual patients and the prior execution of the reassignment surgery is associated to a higher success rate in the patients\' litigations