Thesis (MscAgric (Horticulture))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Commercial fig production with popular European cultivars, Bourjasotte Noire, Col de Damme Noire and Noire de Caromb, is new to the Western Cape. Little research on fig production has been conducted in South Africa and producers are struggling to implement effective commercial practices. In order to establish practices that will maximise yield of quality fruit, the most productive one-year-old shoot lengths were identified in a phenological study. All shoot length categories evaluated in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ (10 – 15 cm, 25 – 40 cm, 50 – 65 cm, 75+ cm) yielded fruit and will probably yield well the following season. In ‘Col de Damme Noire’, shoots longer than 60 cm seem to be suited to reproduction, yet they might produce a poor yield the following season. Shoots 10 – 20 cm long in ‘Noire de Caromb’ are productive relative to their length, while shoots 30 – 50 cm and 60 – 80 cm long are also fairly productive. Shoots longer than 100 cm produced suitable shoot lengths for yield the following season. Two experiments were conducted on ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ and ‘Col de Damme Noire’ to establish the type (Experiment 1, different intensity heading cuts) and timing (Experiment 2) of pruning cuts required to stimulate the growth of shoots of the same length as the shoots selected to be optimal for yield in the phenology study, and to reduce the expression of distal branching. In ‘Bourjasotte Noire’, removing one third of the total length of one-year-old shoots on 21 July by heading stimulated the development of more growth and longer current season shoots compared to other treatments, while reducing yield slightly. Heading back to three nodes in ‘Col de Damme Noire’ stimulated the growth of current season shoots of the optimal length established in the phenology study, while heading cuts on 30 June produced the longest average current season shoot length in ‘Col de Damme Noire’. To further address the effects of distal branching (acrotony), an experiment was conducted to establish whether rest breaking agents (RBA’s) in combination with tip-pruning can increase tree complexity by improving bud break, and whether increased complexity would increase yield in all three cultivars. A second experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of timing RBA applications on bud break and harvest scheduling. Lift® increased the number of buds breaking in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’, while in ‘Noire de Caromb’ Dormex® and oil increased bud break. Tip-pruning increased the average shoot length in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ and ‘Col de Damme Noire’, while causing a reduction in the amount of new growth in ‘Noire de Caromb’. Lift® applied 3 August and Dormex® applied 30 June shortened the number of days to 50% bud break in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ and ‘Col de Damme Noire’. Both Lift® and Dormex® applied on 30 June decreased the number of days to 50% bud break and 50% harvest of the breba crop in ‘Noire de Caromb’. These treatments increased the number of fruit in both the breba and main crop of ‘Noire de Caromb’, but reduced fruit size. In conclusion, different approaches with regards to pruning needs to be followed for each cultivar to establish or maintain the optimal shoots for reproduction, while RBA’s can be used to force earlier, increased- bud break and harvest of breba fruit. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kommersiele verbouing van drie Europese vykultivars, Bourjasotte Noire, Col de Damme Noire en Noire de Caromb is nuut tot die Wes-Kaap. Baie min navorsing oor die verbouing van vye is al in Suid-Afrika gedoen, met die gevolg dat produsente sukkel om effektiewe kommersiële verbouingspraktyke te implementeer. ‘n Fenologiese studie van die drie kultivars is uitgevoer om vas te stel wat die mees produktiewe een-jaar-oue lootlengte is, met die doel om die opbrengs van kwaliteit vrugte te maksimeer. Al vier kategorieë wat ge-evalueer is in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ (10 – 15 cm, 25 – 40 cm, 50 – 65 cm, 75+ cm) is gevind om geskik te wees vir huidige en volgende seisoen opbrengs. Lote langer as 60 cm is geskik vir opbrengs in ‘Col de Damme Noire’ in die huidige seisoen, maar mag in die volgende seisoen swak presteer a.g.v. die gebrekkige lengte van nuwe lote wat daarop ontwikkel. In ‘Noire de Caromb’ is gevind dat lote 10 – 20 cm lank baie produktief is relatief tot hul lengte en dat lote 20 – 50 cm en 60 – 80 cm lank ook relatief produktief is. Lote langer as 100 cm was minder produktief, maar het nuwe lote gelewer wat geskik is vir opbrengs die volgende seisoen. Twee snoei eskperimente is uitgevoer op ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ en ‘Col de Damme Noire’ om vas te stel wat die mees geskikte tipe snoeisnit (Eksperiment 1, verskillende dieptes van topsnitte) en tydstip om te snoei (Eksperiment 2) is met die doel om lote te produseer soortgelyk in lengte aan die wat in die fenologie studie uitgewys is as die produktiefste, en om moontlik die voorkoms van “kaalnekke” te verminder. In ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ is gevind dat die wegsnoei van ‘n derde van die loot op 21 Julie aanleiding gee tot meer groei, langer een-jaar-oue lote en ‘n effense afname in opbrengs. Geskikte lote langer as 60 cm kan in ‘Col de Damme Noire’ verkry word deur lote te top sodat net drie nodes oorbly. Die uitvoer van topsnitte op 30 Junie het langer gemiddelde lootlengtes tot gevolg gehad. Om die probleem van “kaalnekke” (apikale dominansie) verder aan te spreek, is ‘n eksperiment uitgevoer om vas te stel of rusbreekmiddels gekombineerd met tip-snoei gebruik kan word om kompleksiteit te vermeerder deur knopbreek te verhoog, en indien wel, of dit sal aanleiding gee tot verhoogde opbrengs in al drie kultivars. ‘n Tweede eksperiment met verskillende toedieningstye van rusbreekmiddels is uitgevoer om vas te stel of oeste geskeduleer kan word. Lift® het knopbreek verhoog in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’, terwyl Dormex® en olie knopbreek verhoog het in ‘Noire de Caromb’. Tip-snoei het die gemiddelde lootlengtes verhoog in ‘Bourjasotte Noire’ en ‘Col de Damme Noire’, terwyl dit groei verminder het in ‘Noire de Caromb’. Lift® toediening op 3 Augustus en Dormex® toediening op 30 Junie het die aanvang van 50% knopbreek vervroeg in ‘Boujasotte Noire’ en ‘Col de Damme Noire’. Beide Lift® en Dormex® toediening op 30 Junie het die bereiking van 50% knopbreek- en 50% oes vervroeg in ‘Noire de Caromb’. Hierdie behandeling het ook die aantal vrugte van die breba- en hoofoes vermeerder, maar vruggrootte verminder. Verskillende snoeibenaderings behoort dus gevolg te word om vir elke kultivar die regte lootlengtes te genereer of te onderhou, terwyl rusbreekmiddels gebruik kan word om knopbreek te vervroeg en verhoog, en om die breba oes te vervroeg.

Title: Analysis of selected criteria competing line-ups AERO Dance and Fitness aerobic Objective: The main objektive of this master thesis is to identify the main performance indicators of competition in the category of assemblies AERO Dance and Fitness aerobic. Methods: In this master thesis has been using content analysis and observation. These methods were used to collect and evaluate necessary data. Results: The results show various choreographic solutions and fundamental movement forms which affect sport performance of competitive configurations of most successful teams of organizations FISAF and FIG. Keywords: FIG, FISAF, Fitness team aerobic, AERO Dance

Title: Analysis of competing line-ups of categories AERO Dance and Fitness aerobic teams Objective: The main objektive of this master thesis is an analysis of the competition categories line-ups AERO Dance and Fitness aerobic teams from the World Cup of both international organizations in 2014. Methods: In this master thesis has been using content analysis and observation. These methods were used to collect and evaluate necessary data. Results: The results show various choreographic solutions and fundamental movement forms which affect sport performance of competitive line-ups of the most successful teams of FISAF and FIG organizations. They indicate what motion content of the current competitive line-ups in aerobics is necessary to make the choreography successful. Based on the results it is possible to predict the direction where choreografy creation will continue. Keywords: FIG, FISAF, Fitness team aerobic, AERO Dance

Orientador: Luiz de Souza Corrêa / Banca: Marli de Fátima Stradioto Papa / Banca: Kuniko Iwamoto Haga / Banca: Silvia Correa Santos / Banca: Omar Jorge Sabbag / Resumo: A figueira é propagada comercialmente por meio de estaquia e a propagação sexuada, ou seja, por sementes é utilizada exclusivamente em trabalhos de melhoramento genético. A enxertia é uma das formas de propagação das frutíferas, e em relação à cultura da figueira, poderá vir a ser uma forma eficiente de aumentar a produção, e controlar os danos causados pela seca da figueira (C. fimbriata) que inicialmente reduz a produtividade e a qualidade dos frutos, causando, posteriormente, a morte da planta. A resistência varietal é a medida de controle mais indicada, entretanto, a ocorrência de diferentes raças fisiológicas do fungo tem dificultado a avaliação de porta-enxertos e copas resistentes. O objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu em verificar o pegamento, desenvolvimento e produção de plantas do figo Roxo de Valinhos enxertadas sobre diversos porta-enxertos, bem como verificar se dentre as variedades avaliadas existe resistência à seca da figueira / Abstract: A tree is commercially propagated by cuttings, grafting and tissue culture. The sexual propagation, by seeds is used exclusively for breeding programs. Grafting is a way of fruit-trees spreading, and for the culture of the fig tree, could be an effective way to increase the production, and control the damage caused by dry fig, initially reduces the productivity and fruit quality, leading eventually to plant death. The varieties resistant is the most appropriate control measure, however, the occurrence of different fungus physiological races has been making hard to evaluate rootstocks and canopy resistance. The aim of this study was to verify the fixation, development and production plant fig Purple Valinhos grafted on different rootstocks, and to discover if there is among the varieties tested in drought resistance of the fig / Doutor

La spéciation et la diversification sur les iles sont des processus évolutifs tirés par de nombreux facteurs tels qu’histoire géologique et complexité topographique. Réciproquement, l’histoire évolutive d’une espèce contribue à expliquer ses traits biologiques et écologiques actuels. J’ai cherché à analyser ces patrons et processus à travers un système modèle présent à travers toutes les régions tropicales du monde : les Ficus et leurs insectes pollinisateurs (Hymenoptera : Chacidoidea). Plus particulièrement je me suis focalisée sur les Ficus du sous genre Sycomorus et leurs pollinisateurs, les insectes du genre Ceratosolen. Les deux objectif principaux de ma thèse ont été de : (1) étudier l’histoire biogéographique des espèces de Ceratosolen des Philippines à partir des reconstructions phylogénétiques et (2) étudier quelques aspects de la biologie et de l’écologie de ces espèces et de les relier à leur histoire évolutive. Pour l’objectif 1, nous montrons que, comme la plupart des biota des Philippines, les Ceratosolen sont arrivés du sud par Palawan ou par l’archipel de Sulu, à de multiples reprises. Il semble que l’histoire géologique, les bras de mer profonds et les changements de niveau des mers du Pléistocène ont une valeur explicative faible pour comprendre la distribution et la diversification des groupes d’espèces. Les facteurs importants seraient plutôt la complexité topographique des iles, les distances entre iles, la capacité intrinsèque de dispersion des insectes et la spécialisation écologique. Pour l’objectif 2 nous avons étudié les traits suivants : la modification des pattes arrière, la durée de vie, l’activité journalière, la structuration génétique spatiale et la perception des odeurs de figues réceptives. Nous montrons que les pattes postérieures modifiées de C. corneri ont des propriétés hydrophobes plus fortes que celles, non modifiées, de son proche parent, C. jucundus. Le caractère hydrophobe de ces pattes permet aux males de C. corneri de respirer même submergé dans du liquide dans les figues. Cette adaptation est probablement le résultat de la sélection sexuelle car ces males peuvent émerger plus tôt de leurs galles pour féconder les femelles. Nous montrons ainsi comment un trait de la figue, la quantité de liquide, contraint la morphologie et le comportement du pollinisateur. Par ailleurs nous documentons plusieurs cas de coexistence locale de plusieurs espèces de pollinisateurs associées à F. septica. Dans un site nous montrons que les deux espèces de pollinisateurs diffèrent par leur durée de vie mais débutent leur activité en même temps. De plus, F. septica et ses clades de pollinisateurs noirs présentaient une structure géographique similaire. Ce patron a pu apparaitre dans le contexte de barrières géographiques fortes, menant à l’isolement, à l’adaptation locale et finalement, à la co-diversification. Nous montrons que la coexistence de pollinisateurs a probablement été rendue possible par un déplacement initial de caractère suivi d’une extension d’aire. Finalement, nous fournissons des éléments montrant que les variations géographiques d’odeurs de figues réceptives ne limitent pas l’expansion géographique des insectes pollinisateurs. Ceci est confirmé par nos résultats sur la gamme d’odeurs perçues par les insectes. Nous montrons que cette perception était fortement dépendante des stimuli rencontrés. Ainsi nous voyons une convergence des odeurs perçues entre insectes partageant un même hôte. Ceci est une démonstration de la plasticité évolutive du système de perception des odeurs des insectes. Ainsi notre travail explore des aspects historiques et biologiques de l’ensemble des Ceratosolen des Philippines, avec une focalisation sur la diversification en cours dans le système Ficus septica-insectes associés. La suite du travail abordera les moteurs biologiques et les processus biologiques tels que la co-spéciation ou le partage de pollinisateurs que nous avons documentés ici. / Speciation and diversification in islands are evolutionary processes that are driven by many factors such as geological history and topographic complexity. In turn, the evolutionary history of a species contributes to explaining its present biological and ecological traits. In wanting to investigate these patterns and processes, I chose a model system that is present throughout the tropical areas of the world: the figs (genus Ficus) and fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Specifically, I focused on a subgroup of this model system: the subgenus Sycomorus figs and their associated pollinators, the Ceratosolen wasps. The two main objectives of this thesis were: (1) to investigate the biogeographic history of the Philippine Ceratosolen species using phylogenetic tree reconstructions and (2) to investigate certain biological and ecological traits of Philippine Ceratosolen species and to relate these traits to their evolutionary history. For Objective 1, we have shown that, like most Philippine biota, Ceratosolen wasps most likely arrived from the south of the Philippines via Palawan or the Sulu archipelago. It is likely that geological history, deep-water barriers and Pleistocene sea-level changes were not major factors explaining the distribution and diversification of these species groups. They are most likely affected by other factors such as island topographic complexity, distances between islands, intrinsic wasp dispersal ability and ecological specialization. For Objective 2, we specifically looked at the following wasp traits: hind leg modifications, life span and daily activity, spatial genetic structuring and odour perception. We have shown that male C. corneri modified hind legs were able to repel liquids more than its close relative, C. jucundus, that has unmodified hind legs. The hydrophobicity of these hind legs allows C. corneri male wasps to respire even when they are submerged in fig liquid. This adaptation is probably a response to sexual selection because these male wasps now have the ability to emerge earlier to search for mates. We have thus shown how fig functional traits, i.e. amount of fig liquid, can constrain fig wasp morphology and behaviour. Moreover, in the F. septica system, we documented several instances of multiple pollinator species associating with F. septica. In one site, these two pollinator species differed in life span, but are active the same time. Also, F. septica and its black pollinator clades exhibited similar geographic structuring. This could originally be due to strong geographic barriers leading to isolation, local adaptation, and finally co-diversification. We also show the co-existence of pollinating species in an area which probably had been brought about by initial character displacement and subsequent range expansion. Lastly, we provide evidence that receptive fig odours do not constrain the species specificity of the interactions. This was further supported by our results on the range of wasp odour perception. We saw that odour perception in fig wasps is highly dependent on the olfactory stimuli. Convergence in odour perception was seen when wasps shared hosts and divergence was demonstrated when wasp species were constrained to respond to different scent profiles. This is remarkable evidence of the evolutionary plasticity in the insect odour perception system. Thus, this work explored aspects of the history and biology of Philippine Ceratosolen, as a whole, with a focus on the current on-going diversification processes in the Ficus septica-wasp system. Future work should look at the biological drivers of evolutionary processes such as co-speciation and pollinator sharing that we have documented here.

Orientador: Florencia Cecilia Menegalli / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T02:57:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sousa_Severinade_D.pdf: 3233199 bytes, checksum: c69375c3baa9b4be2e41470f3792f663 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: O processo de desidratação osmótica figos (Fícus carica, L.) em soluções de sacarose foi investigado com base em um planejamento experimental completo e metodologia de superfície de resposta (RSM). As variáveis independentes foram a concentração de sacarose, variando de 35,9 a 64,1% p/p e a temperatura da solução desidratante de 32,9 a 47,0ºC, a fim de avaliar a cinética da perda de umidade, da incorporação de açúcares e da atividade de água durante o processo. As condições ótimas de desidratação osmótica que geraram dois tipos de produtos, ou seja, figos com maior conteúdo de açúcares e figos com menor conteúdo de açúcares, ambos com menor atividade de água e menor conteúdo de umidade, foram encontradas respectivamente, na temperatura de 39,7ºC e concentração de 63,1% p/p de sacarose, e temperatura de 35,3ºC e concentração de sacarose de 64,1% p/p. A cinética de incorporação de ácido ascórbico foi estudada durante o processo de desidratação osmótica a 44ºC e 36% p/p de concentração da solução, com adição de ácido ascórbico de 100 e 200mg/100g de solução, obtendo-se coeficientes de difusão para a incorporação da vitamina através do modelo difusional de Fick. A avaliação da degradação de vitamina C durante subseqüente secagem mostrou que as perdas de vitamina C podem ser compensadas através de sua incorporação à fruta durante o processo de desidratação osmótica. As isotermas de sorção e a cinética da secagem convectiva foram determinadas às diferentes temperaturas (40, 50, 60 e 70ºC). Para o ajuste dos dados de secagem foram utilizados o modelo difusional de Fick, o modelo de Page e o modelo exponencial com dois termos. Durante a secagem observou-se que a difusividade não foi constante durante todo o período, considerando-se três difusividades distintas ao longo da curva de secagem. As amostras in natura apresentaram maiores coeficientes de difusão de umidade que as amostras desidratadas osmoticamente com sacarose. O tempo de secagem foi reduzido com o processo de desidratação osmótica em todas as temperaturas, especialmente para obtenção da fruta em umidades intermediárias / Abstract: A full experimental design and response surface methodology (RSM) were used to study osmotic dehydration process of figs (Ficus carica, L.) in sucrose solutions. The independent variables were: the sucrose concentration, varying from 35,9 to 64,1% w/w and the solution temperature, varying from 32,9 to 47,0ºC, in order to study the kinetic of water loss, sugars incorporation and water activity during the process. The optimized conditions in osmotic dehydration to obtain two kinds of products: figs with higher content of sugars and figs with lower content of sugars, both of them with lower water activity and water content, had been found respectively, at 39,7ºC and 63,1% w/w and 35,3ºC and 64,1% w/w of temperature and sucrose concentration. The kinetic of ascorbic acid incorporation was studied during osmotic dehydration process at 44ºC, using a solution of 36% of sucrose concentration with an addition of 100 or 200mg of ascorbic acid /100g of solution. The diffusion coefficients for the vitamin incorporation were obtained fitting data with the Fick¿s second law of diffusion. The evaluation of vitamin C degradation during the subsequent drying process showed that the losses of vitamin C can be compensated with the addition of this vitamin in the fruit during osmotic dehydration process. The sorption isotherms and the kinetic of the convective drying were determined at different temperatures (40, 50, 60 and 70ºC). The drying data was fitted with Fick¿s second law of diffusion, the Page model and the Exponential model with two terms. During the drying was observed that the diffusivity was not constant during all period, therefore, were considered three different diffusivities along of the drying curves. The fresh samples had presented higher water diffusion coefficients compared with the samples osmotically dehydrated with sucrose. The drying time was reduced with the use of osmotic dehydration as pretreatment for the several temperatures, especially when the intermediate moisture of fruit was obtained / Doutorado / Doutor em Engenharia de Alimentos

Orientador : Florencia Cecilia Menegalli / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-03T14:22:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pacco_HonoratoCcalli_M.pdf: 5330330 bytes, checksum: 95805ddfd009ac3d0f14bfe1ecde920f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2003 / Resumo: Estudou-se a secagem de figo [Fícus carica L.) da variedade "Gigante de Valinhos", obtido no Município de Valinhos no Estado de São Paulo. Os figos devidamente transportados desde o centro de abastecimento, foram selecionados, classificados, lavados, escorridos e seguidamente pré-tratados, obtendo-se as seguintes especificações: inteiro in natura, inteiro perfurado, inteiro branqueado com casca, inteiro branqueado sem casca. A partir de ensaios preliminares optou-se pela utilização de figos semi-maduros, já que apresentaram melhores características para a secagem. O produto foi submetido à secagem a 45, 60 e 75°C a uma velocidade constante do ar de 1 m/s. Utilizaram-se também figos em rodelas com espessura de 10 mm, os quais foram classificados como semi-maduros nos ensaios preliminares, com características similares aos figos in natura inteiros e igualmente secos nas condições de secagem citadas anteriormente. Os figos branqueados sem casca e em rodelas secos a 60"C foram os que apresentaram melhores características de cor e aparência. A isoterma de sorção foi realizada a 25, 40 e 60°C, encontrando-se a presença de histerese para cada temperatura. Os dados experimentais do calor isostérico de sorção foram ajustados através da equação de TSAMI. Os valores experimentais dos coeficientes de encolhimento foram ajustados pela equação de LOZANO. No estudo da cinética da secagem, não houve o período de secagem a taxa constante bem definida, ocorrendo somente o período decrescente, tanto para figos inteiros como para figos em rodelas. A equação de Page foi a que melhor ajustou a curva da secagem de figo inteiro. Os dados obtidos foram correlacionados através de diversas equações, a fim de se encontrar a mais adequada ao projeto e simulação de secadores. Tanto as curvas da cinética de secagem como os dados de sorção foram ajustados com o auxílio do Software Gráfico STATISTICA versão 5,0. A cor do produto foi medida pelo sistema CIELab* em espectofotômetro Color QUEST II / Abstract: The study of the drying of the fig was accomplished (Ficus carica L.) with fruits obtained in the district of Valinhos of the State of Sao Paulo. The figs were properly transported from the center of provisioning, then they were selected, classified, washed, drained and pretreated, obtaing the following specifications: whole in nature, whole perforated, whole blanched with skin, whole blanched without skin. From the results of preliminary tests, it was chosen to use semiripe figs that presented better characteristics for drying. The product was submitted to drying at 45, 60 and 75°C and a constant air speed of 1 m/s. Slices of figs were used with 10 millimeters thickness, which had been classified as semiripe in the preliminary tests, with similar characteristics to the whole figs and in natura fruit semiripe and they were dried in the conditions cited above. The blanched figs withount skin cut in slices and dried at 60°C presented the best color and appearance characteristics. The sorption isotherms took place at temperatures of 25, 40 and 60aC, showing histeresis for each temperature. The experimental data of the isosteric sorption heat were adjusted through the equation of TSAMl. The experimental values of the shrinkage coefficients were adjusted by the equation of LOZANO. In the study of drying kinetics, a constant rate of the drying period at a defined constant rate did not appear, occurring, only the decreasing period, for whole figs and for figs in slices. The equation of Page presented the best fit for the whole fig drying curves. The obtained data were correlated with several equations, with the objective of determining an appropriate equation to the design and simulation of dryers. The curves of drying kinetics and the sorption data were adjusted with the Graphic Software STATIST1CA version 5.0. The color of the product was measured by the system ClELab * in a spectrophotometer Color QUEST II / Mestrado / Mestre em Engenharia de Alimentos

Mating system, mating behavior and the evolution thereof is the foundation of this study. More specifically the effect of inbreeding on the evolution of mating behavior is investigated. To this end the pollinating fig wasp, Platyscapa awekei, lends itself to inquiry about inbreeding and the effect on its behavior. A pollinating fig wasp female will lay her eggs inside a syconium, and all offspring will mate with each other. Interestingly the abovementioned pollinating wasp exhibits male dispersal, not commonly expected to occur in a haplodiploid species observed to inbreed frequently. Several theories attempt to explain the evolution of male dispersal in this case, but very little work has been done on the effect of inbreeding on the choice to disperse. In order to study the effects of inbreeding it was necessary to be able to measure the inbredness of individuals. For this reason I developed micro satellite markers both to determine the inbredness of individuals but also to derive parentage from offspring genotypes. With the inbreeding status in hand I had to correlate this with fitness measures in order to derive the effect of inbreeding on this species. Interestingly I found both inbreeding and outbreeding depression, with optimal fitness at some point between fully inbred and fully outbred status. I give some explanations for the occurrence of dispersal in this species but come to the conclusion that dispersal is merely part of a mixed mating system and that more detailed work need to be done to derive what the specific effect of dispersal is on fitness. / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Genetics / unrestricted

A striking variation in the behaviour of pollinating fig wasps (Agonidae) is the occurrence of male fighting in some species while in others it is completely absent. Fighting behaviour was investigated at two levels. Firstly, the variation in fighting behaviour between the species was used to examine factors that might cause the evolution thereof. Comparisons across species were done using phylogenetic regression. This method takes similarity due to phylogenetic constraints into account when data are compared. Kin selection theory implies that fighting is barred by the high degree of relatedness in competing males. We however find that the relatedness of the males do not have an influence on the evolution of fighting and this finding supports models suggesting that high LMC cancels benefits due to relatedness. Rather, that the only factor having a significant correlation with fighting is the release sex ratio. The release sex ratio and dispersal is also associated. Fighting and dispersal are not expected to have direct influence on each other and the association of both with the release sex ratio imply that this may be an indirect link between these two behaviours. A syndrome where fighting and dispersal is found together is in part explained by the release sex ratio. We conclude that the release sex ratio is the most likely cause of the evolution of fighting behaviour in pollinating fig wasps. The second part of this study deals with the proximal determinants causing fighting, in the males of the species Platyscapa awekei. We show that the sex ratio which, is less female biased than non-fighting pollinator species, rapidly becomes even less female biased as soon as both sexes becomes active. Numerous fights are fought by the males in the female limited environment. The activity of the wasps is shown to be regulated by the gaseous environment, which change from a high to a low CO2 concentration with the construction of an exit hole from the fig. The males of the species P. awekei are inactive, and do not engage in mating or fighting activities, in high CO2, contrasted to males of other species, which are active in this environment. P. awekei females rapidly release once the CO2 level is lowered and mating behaviour is only observed in this environment. The number of female to male encounters of every male decrease as the operational sex ratio becomes less female biased. Male fighting in this species is therefore expected due to the high sex ratio, which is enforced by the increase thereof. We conclude that the physical environment, in this species, affects the mating environment. The resultant reduction in the number of potential mating opportunities therefore escalates fighting between the males. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Genetics / unrestricted

The behaviour of sex allocation has been extensively studied in hymenopterans (ants, bees and wasps) as an adaptive trait with respect to intra-specific competition within the framework of kin selection theory. Mating in these organisms often takes place in patchy populations established by the offspring of a few foundresses. Typically, there is a bias in favour of female dispersal from these patches. Theory predicts that foundresses that oviposit alone will do best to produce just enough sons to mate all of their daughters so as to maximize the number of dispersing daughters, under conditions of what is referred to as Local Mate Competition (LMC) between brothers to mate their sisters. If foundresses co-found a patch with other foundresses, they are expected to invest more resources in sons insofar as opportunity to sire offspring with the daughters of the other foundresses presents itself. Among organisms with such a life histories are fig wasps, the insects that pollinate and lay their eggs in the flowers that grow inside young figs. There is thought to be strong selective pressure for foundresses to use information about clutch size differences in species where clutch sizes are small and low foundress numbers are frequently encountered. However, less rigorous modes of sex allocation are thought to suffice in species encountering intermediate foundress numbers. Theory thus predicts a positive relationship between the degree of structure within mating populations and the information utilized by foundresses with respect to intra-specific competition for resources and mating opportunities. This is being extensively tested across the diverse species range of fig wasps and their hosts with the larger objective in mind of contributing to a better understanding of the role of natural selection in accounting for variation observed of intra-specific behaviour. This dissertation reports on a study of the sex allocation behaviour of the pollinating fig wasp Platyscapa awekei, a species characterized by low foundress numbers and clutch size differences brought about by foundress competition over oviposition sites. Offspring collected from experimentally controlled twofoundress broods were fingerprinted using microsatellite genetic markers to assign maternity and work out clutch size differences. These data are used to test what information foundresses use when allocating sex. It is reported that foundresses appear to use information of clutch size differences in two foundress broods. This observation provides evidence of advanced information utilization in fig wasps. More generally, the findings add support to the hypothesis that natural selection can bring about subtle adaptive behaviour at the individual level, but simultaneously highlights the importance of accounting for the selective regime of the organism being studied when attempting to understand the role of natural selection in the evolution of fine scale adaptive traits. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Genetics / unrestricted