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<p>This thesis examines the metaphorical expressions of Robert Southwell and John Donne in light of the instability created in metaphorical thought by Reformational debates. I argue that the theological doctrines regarding the Eucharist and Biblical interpretation had associated consequences for figurative thought and that the violence with which these doctrines were interrogated in early modern England created a crisis of figurative representation that contributed to the elaborate experimentation of metaphor (layerings, argued conceits, rapid transitions between tropes, etc.) found within the poetry of Southwell and Donne.</p> <p>My first chapter traces the theological landscape of early modern England, noting the continental Catholic and Protestant positions which defined the Reformational debates, as well as roughly locating the position of the English Church in the centre of these debates. While each of these doctrinal positions contains certain understandings about metaphorical thought, this chapter argues that it is the general uncertainty and the society-wide fluctuations between these ideas that defines my concept of the “theological aesthetic.” In my final two chapters I look at specific metaphors in the works of Robert Southwell (“Saint Peter’s Complaint,” “Christ’s bloody sweat,” and “The prodigal childs soule wracke”) and John Donne (“The Cross,” “Holy Sonnet 10: Batter my heart, three- personed God,” and “Holy Sonnet 2: I am a little world made cunningly”). Close analysis of these poems reveals that Southwell’s poetry often combines imagery and tropes in complicated ways to form multifaceted metaphors, while Donne’s poetry often functions as a meditation upon the possibilities of figurative language to create meaning.</p> <p>This thesis does not attempt to form a comprehensive theory of early modern metaphor, but rather examines how the theological debates of the Reformation questioned the representational efficacy of figurative language, allowing metaphor to be redefined by the experiments of early modern poets like Southwell and Donne.</p> / Master of English

This dissertation proposes a new method of studying pragmatic language use in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The existing research into pragmatic language use in ASD has predominantly used interviews and experiments in clinical environments to gather data from participants with ASD. These research methods focus heavily on comprehension, on comparing the performance of the participant with ASD to their non-autistic interlocutor. The methodology proposed in this thesis involves using observation and a naturalistic environment to gather conversational data that can be used to fill several gaps in the current research on pragmatic language use in ASD. In this study, people with ASD interacted with either non-autistic people or other people with ASD in triadic conversation sessions. These sessions were recorded, transcribed, and analysed for various pragmatic uses of language that previous research had observed were impaired, such as types of non-literal language and conversational turn taking. The pragmatic language use of three participants with ASD, representing three different levels of language ability, was analysed. The results showed that some participants used types of pragmatic language differently based on with whom they were communicating and also that some purported pragmatic impairments in ASD may not be as ‘impaired’ as they seemed based on previous research. For example, while all participants in this study used more interruptions when interacting with others with ASD compared to when interacting with non- autistic people, the rates of interruption were far less than what has been observed between non-autistic speakers (Hancock & Rubin, 2014), even though people with ASD have been described in the research literature as interrupting frequently (Ochs, Kremer-Sadlik, Sirota, & Solomon, 2004). The research presented in this dissertation has implications for future clinical research into pragmatic language impairments in any speech community and provides an additional methodology that can be used, expanding on the types of research questions that can be investigated in this area. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / This thesis proposes a new method of studying pragmatic language use in people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This methodology involves using observation and the data that can be gathered using it can fill several gaps in the current research on pragmatic language use in ASD. In this study, people with ASD interacted with either non-autistic people or other people with ASD in triadic conversation sessions. These sessions were recorded, transcribed, and analysed for various aspects of pragmatic uses of language. The pragmatic language use of three participants with ASD, representing three different levels of language ability, was analysed. The results showed that some participants used types of pragmatic language differently based on with whom they were communicating and also that some purported pragmatic impairments in ASD may not be as ‘impaired’ as they seemed based on previous research.

Tesis por compendio / Social media platforms, like Twitter, offer a face-saving ability that allows users to express themselves employing figurative language devices such as irony to achieve different communication purposes. Dealing with such kind of content represents a big challenge for computational linguistics. Irony is closely associated with the indirect expression of feelings, emotions and evaluations. Interest in detecting the presence of irony in social media texts has grown significantly in the recent years. In this thesis, we introduce the problem of detecting irony in social media under a computational linguistics perspective. We propose to address this task by focusing, in particular, on the role of affective information for detecting the presence of such figurative language device. Attempting to take advantage of the subjective intrinsic value enclosed in ironic expressions, we present a novel model, called emotIDM, for detecting irony relying on a wide range of affective features. For characterising an ironic utterance, we used an extensive set of resources covering different facets of affect from sentiment to finer-grained emotions. Results show that emotIDM has a competitive performance across the experiments carried out, validating the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Another objective of the thesis is to investigate the differences among tweets labeled with #irony and #sarcasm. Our aim is to contribute to the less investigated topic in computational linguistics on the separation between irony and sarcasm in social media, again, with a special focus on affective features. We also studied a less explored hashtag: #not. We find data-driven arguments on the differences among tweets containing these hashtags, suggesting that the above mentioned hashtags are used to refer different figurative language devices. We identify promising features based on affect-related phenomena for discriminating among different kinds of figurative language devices. We also analyse the role of polarity reversal in tweets containing ironic hashtags, observing that the impact of such phenomenon varies. In the case of tweets labeled with #sarcasm often there is a full reversal, whereas in the case of those tagged with #irony there is an attenuation of the polarity. We analyse the impact of irony and sarcasm on sentiment analysis, observing a drop in the performance of NLP systems developed for this task when irony is present. Therefore, we explored the possible use of our findings in irony detection for the development of an irony-aware sentiment analysis system, assuming that the identification of ironic content could help to improve the correct identification of sentiment polarity. To this aim, we incorporated emotIDM into a pipeline for determining the polarity of a given Twitter message. We compared our results with the state of the art determined by the "Semeval-2015 Task 11" shared task, demonstrating the relevance of considering affective information together with features alerting on the presence of irony for performing sentiment analysis of figurative language for this kind of social media texts. To summarize, we demonstrated the usefulness of exploiting different facets of affective information for dealing with the presence of irony in Twitter. / Las plataformas de redes sociales, como Twitter, ofrecen a los usuarios la posibilidad de expresarse de forma libre y espontanea haciendo uso de diferentes recursos lingüísticos como la ironía para lograr diferentes propósitos de comunicación. Manejar ese tipo de contenido representa un gran reto para la lingüística computacional. La ironía está estrechamente vinculada con la expresión indirecta de sentimientos, emociones y evaluaciones. El interés en detectar la presencia de ironía en textos de redes sociales ha aumentado significativamente en los últimos años. En esta tesis, introducimos el problema de detección de ironía en redes sociales desde una perspectiva de la lingüística computacional. Proponemos abordar dicha tarea enfocándonos, particularmente, en el rol de información relativa al afecto y las emociones para detectar la presencia de dicho recurso lingüístico. Con la intención de aprovechar el valor intrínseco de subjetividad contenido en las expresiones irónicas, presentamos un modelo para detectar la presencia de ironía denominado emotIDM, el cual está basado en una amplia variedad de rasgos afectivos. Para caracterizar instancias irónicas, utilizamos un amplio conjunto de recursos que cubren diferentes ámbitos afectivos: desde sentimientos (positivos o negativos) hasta emociones específicas definidas con una granularidad fina. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que emotIDM tiene un desempeño competitivo en los experimentos realizados, validando la efectividad del enfoque propuesto. Otro objetivo de la tesis es investigar las diferencias entre tweets etiquetados con #irony y #sarcasm. Nuestra finalidad es contribuir a un tema menos investigado en lingüística computacional: la separación entre el uso de ironía y sarcasmo en redes sociales, con especial énfasis en rasgos afectivos. Además, estudiamos un hashtag que ha sido menos analizado: #not. Nuestros resultados parecen evidenciar que existen diferencias entre los tweets que contienen dichos hashtags, sugiriendo que son utilizados para hacer referencia de diferentes recursos lingüísticos. Identificamos un conjunto de características basadas en diferentes fenómenos afectivos que parecen ser útiles para discriminar entre diferentes tipos de recursos lingüísticos. Adicionalmente analizamos la reversión de polaridad en tweets que contienen hashtags irónicos, observamos que el impacto de dicho fenómeno es diferente en cada uno de ellos. En el caso de los tweets que están etiquetados con el hashtag #sarcasm, a menudo hay una reversión total, mientras que en el caso de los tweets etiquetados con el hashtag #irony se produce una atenuación de la polaridad. Llevamos a cabo un estudio del impacto de la ironía y el sarcasmo en el análisis de sentimientos, observamos una disminución en el rendimiento de los sistemas de PLN desarrollados para dicha tarea cuando la ironía está presente. Por consiguiente, exploramos la posibilidad de utilizar nuestros resultados en detección de ironía para el desarrollo de un sistema de análisis de sentimientos que considere de la presencia de ironía, suponiendo que la detección de contenido irónico podría ayudar a mejorar la correcta identificación del sentimiento expresado en un texto dado. Con este objetivo, incorporamos emotIDM como la primera fase en un sistema de análisis de sentimientos para determinar la polaridad de mensajes en Twitter. Comparamos nuestros resultados con el estado del arte establecido en la tarea de evaluación "Semeval-2015 Task 11", demostrando la importancia de utilizar información afectiva en conjunto con características que alertan de la presencia de la ironía para desempeñar análisis de sentimientos en textos con lenguaje figurado que provienen de redes sociales. En resumen, demostramos la utilidad de aprovechar diferentes aspectos de información relativa al afecto y las emociones para tratar cuestiones relativas a la presencia de la ironí / Les plataformes de xarxes socials, com Twitter, oferixen als usuaris la possibilitat d'expressar-se de forma lliure i espontània fent ús de diferents recursos lingüístics com la ironia per aconseguir diferents propòsits de comunicació. Manejar aquest tipus de contingut representa un gran repte per a la lingüística computacional. La ironia està estretament vinculada amb l'expressió indirecta de sentiments, emocions i avaluacions. L'interés a detectar la presència d'ironia en textos de xarxes socials ha augmentat significativament en els últims anys. En aquesta tesi, introduïm el problema de detecció d'ironia en xarxes socials des de la perspectiva de la lingüística computacional. Proposem abordar aquesta tasca enfocant-nos, particularment, en el rol d'informació relativa a l'afecte i les emocions per detectar la presència d'aquest recurs lingüístic. Amb la intenció d'aprofitar el valor intrínsec de subjectivitat contingut en les expressions iròniques, presentem un model per a detectar la presència d'ironia denominat emotIDM, el qual està basat en una àmplia varietat de trets afectius. Per caracteritzar instàncies iròniques, utilitzàrem un ampli conjunt de recursos que cobrixen diferents àmbits afectius: des de sentiments (positius o negatius) fins emocions específiques definides de forma molt detallada. Els resultats obtinguts mostres que emotIDM té un rendiment competitiu en els experiments realitzats, validant l'efectivitat de l'enfocament proposat. Un altre objectiu de la tesi és investigar les diferències entre tweets etiquetats com a #irony i #sarcasm. La nostra finalitat és contribuir a un tema menys investigat en lingüística computacional: la separació entre l'ús d'ironia i sarcasme en xarxes socials, amb especial èmfasi amb els trets afectius. A més, estudiem un hashtag que ha sigut menys estudiat: #not. Els nostres resultats pareixen evidenciar que existixen diferències entre els tweets que contenen els hashtags esmentats, cosa que suggerix que s'utilitzen per fer referència de diferents recursos lingüístics. Identifiquem un conjunt de característiques basades en diferents fenòmens afectius que pareixen ser útils per a discriminar entre diferents tipus de recursos lingüístics. Addicionalment analitzem la reversió de polaritat en tweets que continguen hashtags irònics, observant que l'impacte del fenomen esmentat és diferent per a cadascun d'ells. En el cas dels tweet que estan etiquetats amb el hashtag #sarcasm, a sovint hi ha una reversió total, mentre que en el cas dels tweets etiquetats amb el hashtag #irony es produïx una atenuació de polaritat. Duem a terme un estudi de l'impacte de la ironia i el sarcasme en l'anàlisi de sentiments, on observem una disminució en el rendiment dels sistemes de PLN desenvolupats per a aquestes tasques quan la ironia està present. Per consegüent, vam explorar la possibilitat d'utilitzar els nostres resultats en detecció d'ironia per a desenvolupar un sistema d'anàlisi de sentiments que considere la presència d'ironia, suposant que la detecció de contingut irònic podria ajudar a millorar la correcta identificació del sentiment expressat en un text donat. Amb aquest objectiu, incorporem emotIDM com la primera fase en un sistema d'anàlisi de sentiments per determinar la polaritat de missatges en Twitter. Hem comparat els nostres resultats amb l'estat de l'art establert en la tasca d'avaluació "Semeval-2015 Task 11", demostrant la importància d'utilitzar informació afectiva en conjunt amb característiques que alerten de la presència de la ironia per exercir anàlisi de sentiments en textos amb llenguatge figurat que provenen de xarxes socials. En resum, hem demostrat la utilitat d'aprofitar diferents aspectes d'informació relativa a l'afecte i les emocions per tractar qüestions relatives a la presència d'ironia en Twitter. / Hernández Farias, DI. (2017). Irony and Sarcasm Detection in Twitter: The Role of Affective Content [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/90544 / Compendio

A wide variety of aspects of Machaka's poetry was treated. His poetry which is meaningful when viewed against his traditional culture brings inspiration and a formal mode of literary expression. Death was never accepted by the Tlokwa as an end to life. Machaka has succeeded in blending the ancestral worship with Christian faith. He has used euphemism to modify pain. He makes use of imagery to execute cruelty and bluntness of death. Machaka's protest poetry echoes the same protest of those of other protesters. These refer to the injustice the Blacks experienced from the white regime prior to independence. From his love poems, it is noticed that Machaka is a great lover. When he is in love, he becomes a slave. Machaka uses traditional and modem praise poetry techniques. This made him manage to produce poetry which made a definite impact on Northern Sotho literature and contributed to its depth / African Languages / M.A. (African languages)

This essay compares the figurative language of Bob Dylan’s albums The Times They Are A-Changin’ (1964) and Highway 61 Revisited (1965), with a focus on how Dylan remained engaged with societal injustices and human rights as he switched from acoustic to fronting a rock ‘n’ roll band. The essay argues that Dylan kept his critical stance on social issues, and that the poet’s usage of figurative language became more expressive and complex in the later album. In the earlier album Dylan’s critique, as seen in his use of figurative language, is presented in a more obvious manner in comparison to Highway 61 Revisited, where the figurative language is more vivid, and with a more embedded critical stance. / Uppsatsen jämför det figurativa språket i Bob Dylans skivor The Times They Are A-Changin’ (1964) och Highway 61 Revisited (1965), med ett fokus på hur Dylan fortsatte vara engagerad inom samhällsfrågor och mänskliga rättigheter när han gick över från akustisk solomusik till att leda ett rockband. Uppsatsen argumenterar för att Dylan behöll sin kritiska syn på samhällsfrågor, och att poetens användning av figurativt språk blev mer expressivt och komplext i det senare albumet. I det tidigare albumet är Dylans kritik, som den framstår i hans användning av figurativt språk, presenterad mer direkt i jämförelse med Highway 61 Revisited, där det figurativa språket är mer levande och innehåller en mer förtäckt kritik.

Il presente lavoro prende in considerazione la comprensione dell'ironia verbale in bambini di età prescolastica e scolastica alla luce del suo legame con la teoria della mente (capacità di attribuire stati mentali a se' e agli altri e di prevederne il comportamento sulla base di tali stati) e con le abilità linguistiche dei soggetti. L'obiettivo è verificare quali fattori di tipo relazionale, contestuale e informativo aiutano i bambini nell'interpretare l'ironia verbale prima e dopo l'acquisizione di abilità mentalistiche complesse. Il primo studio si sofferma sulla differenza di status tra gli interlocutori (rapporto simmetrico e asimmetrico) e sulla qualità del legame di attaccamento del bambino con i suoi caregiver. La seconda ricerca approfondisce il ruolo delle conoscenze pregresse che i soggetti hanno a disposizione per comprendere l'enunciato ironico (conoscenze enciclopediche o episodiche) e il tipo di affermazione ironica (costituita da eco o allusione) in rapporto alle abilità mentalistiche e linguistiche. I risultati mostrano che i bambini si avvalgono di alcuni dei fattori individuati per comprendere l'ironia verbale anche prima dell'acquisizione di abilità mentalistiche complesse. / This work considers the verbal irony comprehension in school and preschool age children in the light of its link with theory of mind (the ability to impute mental states to the self and to the others as a way of making sense and predicting behaviour) and linguistic competences of subjects. The aim is to identify the relational, contextual and informative factors helping children to interpret verbal irony before and after the complex mentalistic abilities acquisition. The first study deals with status difference between talkers (symmetric and asymmetric relation) and characteristics of children relationship attachment with their caregivers. The second research elaborates on the role of previous knowledge of subjects to understand irony statement (encyclopaedic or episodic knowledge) and of ironic claim type (echoic or allusional) and the link with mentalistic and linguistic abilities. The results show that children use some of the detected factors to understand verbal irony also before the acquisition of complex theory of mind.

<p>Abstract</p><p>The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the way George W. Bush used moral metaphors to intensify the language in his statements on Operation Iraqi Freedom. Three moral metaphors are presented within two different models that are applied on the data.</p><p>The collected material for the metaphors is constituted of cognitive linguistic books from prominent linguists, such as George Lakoff, Alan Cruse and William Croft, and the data is collected from the official White House website. The scientific method used in this study has been qualitative text analysis where the hermeneutic approach has been an essential part of it.</p><p>The main question: In what way did George W. Bush use moral metaphors in his statements to justify Operation Iraqi Freedom?, resulted in use of moral metaphors that sermons people’s moral values, depict Saddam Hussein’s characteristics as immoral, activate people’s moral priorities to help the Iraqi people, and addresses both conservatives and liberals in America.</p><p>The conclusion of my study is that President Bush deliberately intensified the language in his statements through moral metaphors to justify Operation Iraqi Freedom.</p><p>Keywords: Cognitive Linguistics, Metaphor, Figurative Language, Operation Iraqi Freedom, War on Terror, George W. Bush, Saddam Hussein, USA, Iraq, Qualitative Text Analysis, Hermeneutics.</p>

Denna uppsats undersöker de metaforer som används i svenska för att benämna känslan sorg. Den metafordefinition som tillämpas är den konceptuella, myntad av Lakoff &amp; Johnson (1980), där metaforer ses som språklig evidens för kognitiva mappningar och består av en så kallas måldomän och källdomän. Uppsatsens syfte är att beskriva och kartlägga de olika sorgemetaforernas källdomäner och att anknyta dessa till tre metaforer på övergripande nivå, som i tidigare studier visat vara viktiga för figurativt känslospråk; PSYKET SOM KROPP-METAFOREN (Sweetser 1990), METAFOREN FÖR HÄNDELSESTRUKTUR (Lakoff &amp; Johnson 1999 och Kövecses 2000) och KRAFTMETAFOREN (Kövecses 2000), varav den sistnämnda i tidigare studier av Kövecses (2000) lyfts fram som en för känslospråk dominerande metafor. Metoderna som tillämpas utgörs av en textanalys och en korpusstudie, där metaforer först manuellt extraheras och analyseras från böcker och hemsidor med sorgetema för att sedan uppsökas i korpora. Resultatet uppvisar en stor variation i de metaforer som används och 21 metaforer noteras, med 14 undergrupper. Alla tre tidigare metaforer förekommer. KRAFTMETAFOREN utgör dock inte en dominerande övergrupp, vilket tros kunna bero på att forskning kring metaforen främst skett inom engelska, men även det faktum att sorgen som definierad i studien inte utgör en prototypisk känsla. / This study examines metaphors used in Swedish for the emotion grief. The definition of metaphor applied is the one of the conceptual metaphor, as presented by Lakoff &amp; Johnson (1980), where metaphors are considered to be linguistic evidence of cognitive mappings and consist of a target and source domain. The aim of the study is to describe and map the different source domains, as well as to relate them to three basic level metaphors, that earlier research has shown to be of importance to emotional language; THE BODY AS MIND METAPHOR (Sweetser 1990), THE EVENT STRUCTURE METAPHOR (Lakoff &amp; Johnson 1999 and Kövecses 2000) and THE FORCE METAPHOR (Kövecses 2000). Previous studies by Kövecses (2000) have treated the latter one as a dominating metaphor for more specific level emotion metaphors. The adopted methods consist of a text analysis and a corpus study, where metaphors are extracted from grief themed books and webpages and analyzed manually to later be sought up in corpora. The results show diversity in source domain and a total of 21 superordinate metaphors and 14 subordinate ones are observed. All three basic level metaphors feature. THE FORCE METAPHOR does however not qualify as a dominating metaphor which can function as a superordinate metaphor for all others. This is believed to be due to the fact that most earlier research has focused on English, as well as that the definition of grief used throughout the study does not constitute a prototypical emotion.

A wide variety of aspects of Machaka's poetry was treated. His poetry which is meaningful when viewed against his traditional culture brings inspiration and a formal mode of literary expression. Death was never accepted by the Tlokwa as an end to life. Machaka has succeeded in blending the ancestral worship with Christian faith. He has used euphemism to modify pain. He makes use of imagery to execute cruelty and bluntness of death. Machaka's protest poetry echoes the same protest of those of other protesters. These refer to the injustice the Blacks experienced from the white regime prior to independence. From his love poems, it is noticed that Machaka is a great lover. When he is in love, he becomes a slave. Machaka uses traditional and modem praise poetry techniques. This made him manage to produce poetry which made a definite impact on Northern Sotho literature and contributed to its depth / African Languages / M.A. (African languages)