Copy number variations (CNVs) are a major source of inter-individual genetic difference, accounting for a greater proportion of the human genome than other forms of variation. Recently, the identification of benign and pathogenic CNVs has improved due to arrays with increased coverage. Nevertheless, most CNVs have not been studied with great precision and questions persist regarding their exact breakpoint, gene content, frequency and functional impact. This is especially true in cancer, in which a role for CNVs as risk factors is under-explored. Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is a dominantly inherited disorder with an increased risk of early-onset breast cancer, sarcomas, brain tumors and other neoplasms in individuals harboring germline TP53 mutations. Known genetic determinants of LFS do not fully explain its clinical phenotype. In this thesis we describe the association between CNVs and LFS. First, by examining DNA from a healthy population and an LFS cohort using oligonucleotide arrays, we show that the number of CNVs per genome is well conserved in the healthy population, but remarkably enriched in these cancer-prone individuals. We found a significant increase in CNVs among carriers of germline TP53 mutations with a familial cancer history. Second, we find that ii specific CNVs at 17p13.1 are associated with LFS or developmental delay, depending on the exact breakpoint with respect to TP53. Using a purpose built array with 93.75% accuracy, we fine-mapped these microdeletions and find that they arise by Alu-mediated non-allelic homologous recombination, and contain common genes, whose under-expression distinguishes the two phenotypes. Third, we explore somatic CNVs in choroid plexus carcinoma tumor genomes. We show that this tumor is over-represented in LFS, and the number of somatic CNVs is associated with TP53 mutations and disease progression. These studies represent the first genomic analyses of LFS, and suggest a more generalized association between CNVs and cancer.

Copy number variations (CNVs) are a major source of inter-individual genetic difference, accounting for a greater proportion of the human genome than other forms of variation. Recently, the identification of benign and pathogenic CNVs has improved due to arrays with increased coverage. Nevertheless, most CNVs have not been studied with great precision and questions persist regarding their exact breakpoint, gene content, frequency and functional impact. This is especially true in cancer, in which a role for CNVs as risk factors is under-explored. Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) is a dominantly inherited disorder with an increased risk of early-onset breast cancer, sarcomas, brain tumors and other neoplasms in individuals harboring germline TP53 mutations. Known genetic determinants of LFS do not fully explain its clinical phenotype. In this thesis we describe the association between CNVs and LFS. First, by examining DNA from a healthy population and an LFS cohort using oligonucleotide arrays, we show that the number of CNVs per genome is well conserved in the healthy population, but remarkably enriched in these cancer-prone individuals. We found a significant increase in CNVs among carriers of germline TP53 mutations with a familial cancer history. Second, we find that ii specific CNVs at 17p13.1 are associated with LFS or developmental delay, depending on the exact breakpoint with respect to TP53. Using a purpose built array with 93.75% accuracy, we fine-mapped these microdeletions and find that they arise by Alu-mediated non-allelic homologous recombination, and contain common genes, whose under-expression distinguishes the two phenotypes. Third, we explore somatic CNVs in choroid plexus carcinoma tumor genomes. We show that this tumor is over-represented in LFS, and the number of somatic CNVs is associated with TP53 mutations and disease progression. These studies represent the first genomic analyses of LFS, and suggest a more generalized association between CNVs and cancer.

No description available.

Le gène TP53 est extrêmement polymorphique avec 85 polymorphismes décrits. Certains de ces polymorphismes sont associés à une augmentation du risque de cancer, par exemple rs10425222 peut moduler les fonctions de p53. Cependant, pour d’autres, comme le rs17878362 qui est le polymorphisme intronique le plus étudié, leur association avec une augmentation du riques au cancer est controversée.Pour analyser l’association entre le polymorphisme rs17878362 et la susceptibilité au cancer, nous avons analysé son rôle dans des contextes de cancers sporadiques et familiaux. Les résultats obtenus pour le polymorphisme rs17878362 sont paradoxaux avec une augmentation des cancers sporadiques associée avec le génotype A2A2 alors que l’allèle A2 est associé avec un effet « protectif » chez les patients atteints du syndrome de Li-Fraumeni porteurs d’une mutation germinale de TP53 situé sur l’haplotype A1. Ces observations suggèrent que des haplotypes spécifiques de TP53 pourraient moduler les capacités suppressives de p53. Une hypothèse possible est que les différents haplotypes de TP53 présenteraienrt des mutations somatiques à des fréquences différentes dans la population.De plus, le gène TP53 exprime différentes isoformes, comme le D40p53, inhibant l’activité suppressive de p53. Le D40p53 peut être produite par le maintien de l’intron 2 par épissage alternatif. Nous avons montré que les G-quadruplexes, des structures tridimensionnelles formées dans des régions riches en G, sont formés dans l’intron 3 et régulent la rétention de l’intron 2 et la formation du transcrit p53I2. Nous avons aussi observé que le polymorphisme rs1652785 (localisé dans l’intron 2) semble réguler la stabilité du p53I2. Ces résultats suggèrent que les polymorphismes de TP53 localisés dans une région de 412 pb située entre l’exon 2 et l’exon 4 régulent l’expression des isoformes de p53 dans une séquence temporelle d’évènements en modulant la formation des pré-ARNm (rs17878362), la stabilité des ARNm (rs1642785) et les fonctions protéiques (rs10425222).L’expression des isoformes de p53 est donc finement régulée par des mécanismes impliquant les polymorphismes de TP53 qui sont aussi associés avec une altération dans la susceptibilité au cancer. / The TP53 gene is a highly polymorphic gene with 85 polymorphisms described. Some of these have been associated with an increase of cancer susceptibility, for example rs10425222 that can modulate certain p53 activities. However for others such as rs17878362, the most studied intronic polymorphism, the association with cancer risk is more controversial. To investigate the influence of rs17878362 on cancer susceptibility, we analysed its role in sporadic and familial contexts. The results are paradoxical with an increase of sporadic cancer associated with the rs17878362 A2A2 genotype whereas the rs17878362 A2 allele is associated with a “protective” effect in the context of Li-Fraumeni patients carrying a TP53 germline mutation on an A1 haplotype. These observations suggest that specific TP53 haplotypes could modulate p53’s tumour suppression capacities. A possible hypothesis to explain this could be that somatic mutations are carried on different haplotypes of TP53 present at different allele frequencies in the population. In addition, TP53 is expressed as several protein isoforms, such as D40p53, which inhibits p53’s suppressive activity. D40p53 can be produced from an alternative spliced transcript that retains intron 2. We have shown that G-quadruplexes, tri-dimensional structures formed in G-rich sequences, are formed in intron 3 and regulate the retention of intron 2 and the formation of the p53I2 transcript. We also observed that rs1642785 (located in intron 2) could regulate p53I2’s stability. These results suggest that the TP53 polymorphisms located in a 412 bp region located between exon 2 and exon 4 regulate the expression of p53 isoforms in a temporal sequence of events by modulating the pre-mRNA formation (rs17878362), mRNA stability (rs1642785) and protein functions (rs1042522).p53 isoforms’ expression is thus finely regulated by mechanisms involving TP53 polymorphisms, which are also associated with altered cancer susceptibility.

La protéine p53 répond à divers stress cellulaires pour induire l'apoptose et l'arrêt du cycle cellulaire. Cela permet à p53 de maintenir l'intégrité du génome, et la fonction de p53 est d'une importance capitale dans la suppression de l'oncogenèse cellulaire. En réponse à divers stress, p53 induit une activation transcriptionnelle par stabilisation, tétramérisation et activation. C'est pourquoi des mutations du gène TP53 sont fréquemment trouvées dans tumeurs. L'homotétramérisation de la protéine p53 via le domaine de tétramérisation est essentielle pour l'expression fonctionnelle de p53, et l'activité transcriptionnelle de p53 est fortement corrélée à la stabilité de la structure tétramérique. p53 a été exprimée depuis les premiers vertébrés jusqu'aux mammifères et aux oiseaux. p53 est en équilibre entre les formes monomériques et tétramériques, et le domaine de tétramérisation de p53 (p53TD) forme une structure ba. En revanche, les poissons tels que le poisson zèbre ont une deuxième hélice dans leurs protéines p63 et p73. p63 et p73 sont des homologues de p53, et il a été démontré que p63 est impliqué dans le développement et la différenciation des organes ectodermiques, et p73 dans le développement du système nerveux. On sait également que p63 et p73 forment des hétérotetrameres pour se réguler négativement l'un l'autre, alors que p53 ne forme pas. Malgré l'importance du rôle de la famille p53 dans l'évolution, les changements dans la stabilité de sa structure tétramérique et leur effet sur sa fonction ne sont pas clairs. C'est pourquoi nous avons tenté d'élucider le mécanisme moléculaire basé sur la structure tétramérique de p53. Dans cette étude, nous avons analysé les effets des mutations dans les tumeurs malignes et des substitutions dans la séquence du domaine de tétramérisation de p53 au cours de l'évolution sur la formation du tétramère, sa stabilité structurelle et la formation d'hétérotétramères, et nous avons étudié le rôle de la fonction de tétramérisation dans les fonctions spécifiques des protéines de la famille p53. La thèse contient cinq chapitres. Le chapitre 1 décris le rôle de la protéine p53 et du domaine de tétramérisation dans la régulation de son activité. Dans le chapitre 2, je détermine l'importance des effets négatifs dominants des mutations du domaine de tétramérisation de p53 dans le syndrome de Li-Fraumeni (LFS). Chapitre 3 discute des différences entre les espèces en ce qui concerne la stabilité structurelle de p53TD au cours de l'évolution des mammifères et des facteurs qui contribuent à ces différences. Dans le chapitre 4, je discute de la structure et de la stabilité des domaines de tétramérisation de p53 chez plusieurs espèces de vertébrés, et en particulier chez les poissons, ainsi que de l'analyse de la formation de l'hétérotramère p53-p63. Dans le dernier chapitre 5, je donne des conclusions. En conclusion, ces études permettent de clarifier l'importance de la formation du tétramère p53 dans l'expression fonctionnelle des membres de la famille p53 et les mécanismes moléculaires de stabilité et d'hétérogénéité dans la formation du tétramère. Cette étude apporte de nouvelles perspectives sur la régulation fonctionnelle et l'évolution d'autres protéines multimériques. / The p53 protein responds to various cellular stresses to induce apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. This enables p53 to maintain genome integrity, and p53 function is of paramount importance in the suppression of cellular oncogenesis. In response to various stresses, p53 induces transcriptional activation through stabilization, tetramerization, and activation. Therefore, mutations in the gene TP53 are frequently found in tumors. 　 The homotetramerization of p53 protein via the tetramerization domain is essential for the functional expression of p53, and p53 transcriptional activity is strongly correlated with the stability of the tetrameric structure. p53 has been expressed from the early vertebrates to mammals and birds. p53 is in equilibrium between monomeric and tetrameric forms, and the p53 tetramerization domain (p53TD) forms a ba structure. In contrast, fish such as Zebrafish have a second helix in their p63 and p73 proteins. p63 and p73 are p53 homologues, and it has been shown that p63 is involved in the development and differentiation of ectodermal organs, and p73 in the development of the nervous system. It is also known that p63 and p73 form heterotetramers to negatively regulate each other, while p53 does not. Despite the importance of the role of the p53 family in evolution, changes in the stability of its tetrameric structure and its effect on its function are not clear. Therefore, we attempted to elucidate the molecular mechanism based on the p53 tetramer structure. In this study, we analyzed the effects of mutations in malignant tumors and substitutions in the p53 tetramerization domain sequence during evolution on tetramer formation, its structural stability, and heterotetramer formation, and investigated the role of the tetramerization function in the specific functions of the p53 family proteins. The thesis contains five chapters. Chapter 1 describes the role of the p53 protein and the tetramerization domain in regulating its activity. In Chapter 2, I determine the importance of dominant negative effects of mutations in the p53 tetramerization domain in Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS). Chapter 3 discusses the species differences in p53TD structural stability in mammalian evolution and the factors that contribute to these differences. In Chapter 4, I discuss the structure and stability of the p53 and p63 tetramerization domains in several vertebrate species, and in particularly fish species, as well the analysis of p53-p63 heterotetramer formation. In the final Chapter 5, I provide the conclusions of this study. In conclusion, these studies help to clarify the importance of the formation of the p53 tetramer in the functional expression of p53-family members and the molecular mechanisms of stability and heterogeneity in tetramer formation. This study provides new insights into the functional regulation and evolution of other multimeric proteins.

Le gène suppresseur de tumeurs TP53 exprime plusieurs isoformes, dont Δ40p53 (perte du domaine de transactivation) et Δ133p53 (perte du domaine de transactivation et d’une partie du domaine de liaison à l’ADN). Ces isoformes inhibent l’activité suppressive de p53 et seraient sur-exprimées dans les cancers (sein et mélanome). Dans les cancers faiblement associés à une mutation TP53, ces isoformes seraient de bons candidats pour inactiver p53. Il convient de comprendre les mécanismes transcriptionnels qui régulent leurs expressions. Δ133p53 est produite par un promoteur alternatif P3 localisé dans TP53. Nous avons montré que Δ133p53 est un gène cible de p53, qui transactive le promoteur P3 par fixation sur un élément de réponse présent dans l’exon 4. L’expression de Δ133p53 est corrélée à celle d’autres gènes cibles de p53 en réponse à un stress génotoxique. De plus, elle réprime la suppression de la prolifération induite par p53 en inhibant ses capacités de liaison à l’ADN. Δ40p53 est produite par épissage alternatif, dont la rétention de l’intron 2 favorise sa traduction et empêche celle de p53. Nous avons montré que des structures de type G-quadruplexes présentes dans l’intron 3 régulent l’exclusion de l’intron 2. Ces structures comprennent le polymorphisme TP53PIN3 (duplication de 16pb), qui change leur localisation et affecte l’expression des ARNm codant p53 et Δ40p53. De plus, nous avons montré que ce polymorphisme est associé à une accélération de la cancérogenèse dans le syndrome Li-Fraumeni, caractérisé par la présence d’une mutation germinale TP53 (effet modificateur: 19 ans de différence à l’âge moyen du premier diagnostique entre les deux variants). L’expression des isoformes de p53 dépend de mécanismes transcriptionnels différents, indiquant des rôles différents dans la modulation des fonctions suppressives de p53. En plus d’inactiver p53 dans les cancers, ces isoformes pourraient être à l’origine des effets modificateurs des polymorphismes de TP53 sur les mutants p53. / The TP53 tumour suppressor gene expresses several isoforms, of which Δ40p53 (lack of transactivation domain) and Δ133p53 (lack of both transactivation and part of DNA-binding domains). These isoforms inhibit p53 suppressive activity and have been shown to be over-expressed in cancers (breat and melanoma). In cancers associated with low TP53 mutation rate, these isoforms could be great candidates to inactivate p53. It seems important to understand the transcriptional mechanisms that regulate their expression. Δ133p53 is produced by an alternative P3 promoter within TP53. We showed that Δ133p53 is a p53 target gene. p53 transactivates the P3 promoter and interact with a response element within exon 4. Δ133p53 expression is correlated to other p53 target genes in response to genotoxic stress. In addition, Δ133p53 inhibits p53-dependent suppression of proliferation by inhibiting p53 DNA-binding activity. Δ40p53 is produced by alternative splicing: retention of intron 2 favours its translation while it avoid the one of p53. We showed that G-quadruplex structures are formed in intron 3 and regulate retention of intron 2. The TP53PIN3 polymorphism (16 bp duplication) is embedded within these structures and affects their locations leading to variation of mRNA expression of p53 and Δ40p53. In addition, we showed that this polymorphism is associated with acceleration of carcinogenesis in Li-Fraumeni syndrome, characterized by germline TP53 mutation (genetic modifier effect: difference of 19 years in mean age at first diagnosis of cancer between the two variants). The expression of p53 isoforms depends on different transcriptional mechanisms, suggesting different roles in the modulation of p53 suppressive functions. In addition to inactivate p53 in cancers, these isoforms could be the mediators of modifier effects observed for TP53 polymorphisms on mutant p53.

A síndrome de Li-Fraumeni (LFS) e sua variante like (LFL) são associadas a mutações germinativas no gene TP53 e predispõe ao alto risco para múltiplos tumores em idade jovem. Analisamos 91 famílias LFS/LFL do sul/sudeste do Brasil para mutações germinativas e haplótipos de TP53 (PIN2, PIN3 e PEX4) e MDM2 (309T-G). A mutação R337H ocorreu em 44,4% das famílias avaliadas. Em 750 controles da região a freqüência populacional da mutação foi 0,3%. A genotipagem de oito indivíduos não relacionados R337H-positivos para 29 TAG SNPs intragênicos demonstrou o mesmo haplótipo raro estabelecendo efeito fundador para R337H. O alelo duplicado no PIN3 apresenta impacto modificador e retardo de 17,1 anos na ocorrência de tumores em famílias com mutação no TP53, enquanto o SNP309 MDM2 modula a idade dos sarcomas de partes moles. / Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) and its variant like (LFL) are associated with germline mutations in the TP53 gene and predispose to a variety of cancers at an earlier age. We analyzed 91 LFS/LFL families from southern Brazil for germline mutations in TP53 and polymorphisms in TP53 (PIN2, PIN3, PEX4) and MDM2 (309T-G). The germline TP53 mutation R337H was found in 44.4% of all families included. In 750 controls from the same region, mutation prevalence was 0.3%. Genotyping of eight unrelated R337H-positive individuals for 29 intragenic TAG SNPs showed that they all shared the same rare haplotype confirming the founder effect for the mutation. Duplication of PIN3 had a modifier effect on the age of tumor onset (delay of 17.1 years) in TP53 mutation carriers whereas MDM2 SNP309 modulated age of onset for soft-tissue sarcomas.

A síndrome de Li-Fraumeni (LFS) e sua variante like (LFL) são associadas a mutações germinativas no gene TP53 e predispõe ao alto risco para múltiplos tumores em idade jovem. Analisamos 91 famílias LFS/LFL do sul/sudeste do Brasil para mutações germinativas e haplótipos de TP53 (PIN2, PIN3 e PEX4) e MDM2 (309T-G). A mutação R337H ocorreu em 44,4% das famílias avaliadas. Em 750 controles da região a freqüência populacional da mutação foi 0,3%. A genotipagem de oito indivíduos não relacionados R337H-positivos para 29 TAG SNPs intragênicos demonstrou o mesmo haplótipo raro estabelecendo efeito fundador para R337H. O alelo duplicado no PIN3 apresenta impacto modificador e retardo de 17,1 anos na ocorrência de tumores em famílias com mutação no TP53, enquanto o SNP309 MDM2 modula a idade dos sarcomas de partes moles. / Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) and its variant like (LFL) are associated with germline mutations in the TP53 gene and predispose to a variety of cancers at an earlier age. We analyzed 91 LFS/LFL families from southern Brazil for germline mutations in TP53 and polymorphisms in TP53 (PIN2, PIN3, PEX4) and MDM2 (309T-G). The germline TP53 mutation R337H was found in 44.4% of all families included. In 750 controls from the same region, mutation prevalence was 0.3%. Genotyping of eight unrelated R337H-positive individuals for 29 intragenic TAG SNPs showed that they all shared the same rare haplotype confirming the founder effect for the mutation. Duplication of PIN3 had a modifier effect on the age of tumor onset (delay of 17.1 years) in TP53 mutation carriers whereas MDM2 SNP309 modulated age of onset for soft-tissue sarcomas.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Although rare, classification of over 200 hereditary cancer susceptibility syndromes accounting for ~5-10% of cancer incidence has enabled the discovery and understanding of cancer predisposition genes that are also frequently mutated in sporadic cancers. The need to prevent or delay invasive cancer can partly be addressed by characterization of cells derived from healthy individuals predisposed to cancer due to inherited "single-hits" in genes in order to develop patient-derived samples as preclinical models for mechanistic in vitro studies. Here, we present microarray-based transcriptome profiling of Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) patient-derived unaffected breast epithelial cells and their phenotypic characterization as in vitro three-dimensional (3D) models to test pharmacological agents. In this study, the epithelial cells derived from the unaffected breast tissue of a LFS patient were cultured and progressed from non-neoplastic to a malignant stage by successive immortalization and transformation steps followed by growth in athymic mice. These cell lines exhibited distinct transcriptomic profiles and were readily distinguishable based upon their gene expression patterns, growth characteristics in monolayer and in vitro 3D cultures. Transcriptional changes in the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition gene signature contributed to the unique phenotypes observed in 3D culture for each cell line of the progression series; the fully transformed LFS cells exhibited invasive processes in 3D culture with disorganized morphologies due to cell-cell miscommunication, as seen in breast cancer. Bioinformatics analysis of the deregulated genes and pathways showed inherent differences between these cell lines and targets for pharmacological agents. After treatment with small molecule APR-246 that restores normal function to mutant p53, we observed that the neoplastic LFS cells had reduced malignant invasive structure formation from 73% to 9%, as well as an observance of an increase in formation of well-organized structures in 3D culture (from 27% to 91%) by stereomicroscopy and confocal microscopy. Therefore, the use of well-characterized and physiologically relevant preclinical models in conjunction with transcriptomic profiling of high-risk patient derived samples as a renewable laboratory resource can potentially guide the development of safer and more effective chemopreventive approaches.