Esta dissertação descreve os recentes desenvolvimentos do Chafariz Atômico localizado no Instituto de Física de São Carlos. Ele consiste de um aparato experimental que provê uma referência de freqüência (e tempo) de altíssima precisão. Para conseguir tal qualidade metrológica, esse sistema trava a freqüência de um oscilador eletrônico, baseado em um cristal de quartzo, na freqüência relativa a uma transição atômica, de uma amostra de átomos resfriados. O átomo utilizado é o 133Cs e a transição utilizada corresponde aos dois níveis hiperfínos do seu estado fundamental. O ciclo de funcionamento é composto por uma etapa de aprisionamento a laser dos átomos e bombeamento óptico, para que todos os átomos se encontrem num mesmo e determinado nível de energia. Esses átomos são então lançados opticamente contra a gravidade através de uma cavidade de microondas. Em trajetória balística e livre de interferências externas, o conjunto de átomos sofre uma possível mudança de estado, dependendo das características de potência e freqüência do sinal de microondas injetado na cavidade. Esta probabilidade de transição é o sinal de erro utilizado para travar em malha fechada o gerador de microondas que alimenta a cavidade. Os melhores resultados obtidos neste experimento foram uma estabilidade de 5x10-12τ-1/2 resultante de um sinal com 3Hz de largura a meia altura (FWHM) da franja central. Fizemos também uma avaliação preliminar dos principais deslocamentos de freqüência e uma análise de interação espacial dos átomos com o campo de microondas. / This paper describes the recent developments of the Atomic Fountain located at the São Carlos Physics Institute. It provides a very high resolution frequency (and time) reference. This is achieved locking an electronic oscillator, based on a quartz crystal, to an atomic resonance of a cold atomic sample. Our laboratory uses the 133Cs atom, using as the referenced transition that corresponds to the two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state. The operating cycle comprises a stage of laser trapping atoms or optical pumping, so that all atoms are within the same atomic state. These atoms are then launched optically against gravity through a microwave cavity. In ballistic trajectory and free from external interference, the set of atoms undergoes a change of state, depending on the power and frequency of the microwave signal injected into the cavity. This transition probability is the error signal used to lock the microwave generator supplying the cavity in a closed loop. The best result obtained in this experiment was a stability of 5x10-12τ-1/2 resulting from signal with a 3 Hz half width (FWHM) of the central fringe. We also provide a preliminary assessment of the main frequency shifts and an analysis of spatial interaction of atoms with the microwave field.

Em 1967, a definição do segundo passou a ser baseada nas propriedades atômicas dos átomos de 133Cs. O instrumento utilizado para reproduzir esta definição é um relógio atômico. Neste trabalho iremos apresentar os progressos feitos no programa brasileiro de metrologia científica de tempo e freqüência. A proposta deste trabalho de dissertação é a caracterização do nosso padrão. Nós estudaremos os deslocamentos presentes em um relógio atômico, como o efeito Zeeman Quadrático, Δ ν/ ν0 =5,4×10-13 o ?Cavity Pulling?, Δ ν/ ν0 = 1,27×10-13 e o ?Rabi Pulling?, Δν/ν0 =1,3×10?13 entre outros, que são induzidas na freqüência hiperfina do césio. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho podem ser resumidos da seguinte forma: uma incerteza global de 1,44×10-12 e uma estabilidade a curto prazo dada pela raíz quadrada da variância de Allan 1,8×10-10Τ-0,5. Estes resultados foram medidos após as seguintes mudanças efetuadas em nosso padrão: determinamos a potência ótima injetada na cavidade afim de aumentar o sinal e assegurar que os átomos sofram uma transição π/2; melhoramos o controle do campo magnético estático aplicado ao longo da cavidade de interrogação resultando em um campo magnético mais homogêneo; e, diminuímos a temperatura de operação do forno do relógio tal que a velocidade média dos átomos presente no feixo atômico diminui significativamente. Todas estas mudanças resultaram no ganho de uma ordem de grandeza na acuracia e na estabilidade de nosso relógio. / Since 1967, the definition of the second is based on the atomic properties of the 133Cs atom. The device that realises this definition is an atomic clock. In this work, we present the progress made in the last year on Brazilian scientific time and frequency program. The aim of this dissertation work is the caracterization of our standard. We report the major sifts present in our atomic clock due to Quadratic Zeeman effect, Δν/ν0 =5,4×10-13 Cavity Pulling, Δν/ν0 =1,27×10-13 Rabi Pulling, Δν/ν0 =1,3×10-13 and other ones, which induced a shift in the hiperfine levels frequency of the performances: a global uncertainty of 1,44×10-12 and a short term stability of 1,8×10-10Τ-0,5 .The results were obtained after these changes: we have determined the optimum microwave power injected into the cavity in order to increase the signal and assure that the atoms suffer a π/2 pulse; we have also minimizes the field inhomogeneity by improving the control of the static magntic field along the interaction region; we have decreased the temperature of the clock oven in order to obtain a slower atomic beam. All this changes has increased our accuracy and our stability of about one order.

La thèse présente les résultats expérimentaux obtenus au cours du développement et des essais au sol du modèle de vol de l'horloge à atomes froids PHARAO. PHARAO est le premier étalon primaire de fréquence dédié à des applications spatiales. Il est développé par l'agence spatiale française CNES. PHARAO est un des principaux instruments de la mission spatiale de l'ESA: ACES (Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space). Le lancement est prévu en 2016. La mission est basée sur des comparaisons de très hautes performances en temps et en fréquence, entre PHARAO et un ensemble d’horloges basées au sol, pour effectuer des tests en physique fondamentale. La charge utile sera installée sur une palette extérieure de la Station spatiale internationale. Après une introduction sur les horloges atomiques et un résumé de la mission ACES, l'architecture de PHARAO optimisée pour la microgravité et son fonctionnement sont décrits. Ensuite nous présentons les mesures et l'analyse de la stabilité de fréquence. Au sol la stabilité de fréquence est mesurée à un niveau de 3,1x10-13 t-1/2. Cette valeur est en accord avec les différentes sources de bruit. En microgravité la stabilité atteindra 10-13 t-1/2. Pour terminer les principaux déplacements de fréquence sont analysés. Une étude détaillée est donnée sur les propriétés des blindages magnétiques, leurs hystérésis et la conception d’une compensation magnétique active. L'objectif est de réduire l'incertitude sur l’effet Zeeman du second ordre au niveau de quelques 10-17. La détermination de la température de l’environnement des atomes est également analysée avec l'objectif d'atteindre une incertitude sur le déplacement de fréquence par le rayonnement du corps noir dans la gamme de 10-17. Un budget préliminaire sur l’incertitude de fréquence de l’horloge au sol s’établit à 1,1x 10-15. Ce budget est compatible avec un objectif de 3x10-16 en microgravité. La prochaine étape verra l’assemblage tous les autres instruments ACES pour un lancement prévu en 2016. / This thesis presents the experimental results obtained during the development and the ground tests of the flight model of the cold atoms space clock PHARAO. PHARAO, the first Primary Frequency Standard (PFS) for space applications, is developed by the French space agency CNES. It is a main instrument of the ESA space mission ACES: Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space with a launch scheduled on 2016. The mission is based on high performances time and frequency comparisons between a payload including PHARAO and ground based clocks to perform tests in fundamental physics. The payload will be installed on an external pallet of the International Space Station. After an introduction on atomic clocks and a summary on the ACES mission, the PHARAO architecture, optimized for microgravity environment, and its operation is described. It is followed by the measurements and the analysis of the frequency stability. On ground the frequency stability is measured at a level of 3.1 10-13 t-1/2. This value is in agreement with the different sources of noise. In space the frequency stability will reach 10-13 t-1/2. Finally the main frequency shifts are analyzed. A detailed study is given on magnetic shield properties, hysteresis and the design of the active magnetic compensation. The objective is to reduce the uncertainty of the second order Zeeman effect within few 10-17. The temperature determination of the atomic environment is also detailed and the goal is to reach an uncertainty on the blackbody frequency shift in the 10-17 range. A preliminary budget on the frequency accuracy of PHARAO on ground is evaluated at 1.1 10-15. This value is compatible with the expected accuracy budget of 3x10-16 when the clock will operate in microgravity. In the next step all the ACES instruments will be assembled for a launch scheduled on 2016.

Esta dissertação propõe o projeto e a implementação de um sintetizador de sinal pertencente à banda X, com frequência de 9.192 GHz, para promover a transição atômica do átomo de césio durante o ciclo de operação do padrão atômico de frequência do CePOF/IFSC. Diferente do sintetizador em uso, este provê duas fontes de sinais, a fim de realizar a alimentação simétrica da cavidade de micro-ondas. A alimentação simétrica apresenta uma melhoria em relação à montagem experimental atual e visa atenuar os efeitos de gradiente de potência ao quais os átomos estão expostos enquanto cruzam a cavidade de interrogação. O sintetizador também apresenta um controle de fase em um dos sinais, para que seja possível um ajuste de fase entre eles, permitindo que ambos cheguem à cavidade de interrogação em fase. O método utilizado para a síntese dos sinais é o indireto, onde o sinal de interesse é obtido por meio de osciladores e componentes que possibilitam a manipulação algébrica das frequências, aliados aos circuitos de travamento para controle dos osciladores / This text considers the design and implementation of an X-band signal synthesizer, with a 9.192 GHz frequency, to promote the atomic transition of cesium during the operation process of the CePOF/IFSCs atomic frequency standard. Unlike the current synthesizer, the present one provides two sources of signal, in order to perform the symmetrical feed of the microwave cavity. The symmetrical feed is an improvement compared to the current experimental set up and aims at reducing the power gradient effects to which the atoms are exposed when travelling throughout the interrogation cavity. The synthesizer also has a phase control in one of the signals, in order to ensure that both signals will get into the interrogation cavity in phase. The synthesis method used is the indirect one; the desired signal is formed by means of oscillators and devices that allow the algebraic manipulation of frequencies, combined with lock circuits to control the oscillators

Optical frequency standards with the reference to a narrow electronic transition of a laser-cooled collection of neutral atomic particles are becoming essential tools of research in modern precision physics experiments. In the core of a building block of an optical frequency standard is the optical continuous wave laser that has a good spectral purity of the emitted light. Such a stable optical oscillator is highly desirable in high resolution spectroscopy, if it emits in a good quality beam at a short visible wavelength. This Master thesis explores efficient techniques for building such an optical frequency source intended for use in the cooling and trapping of Calcium atoms scheme. The strong dipole transition at the blue wavelength in the atomic Calcium is needed to reduce the kinetic energy of atoms by nearly six orders of magnitude. A further reduction in the thermal energy of the laser cooled atoms is required to locate with ultra-high precision the 400 Hz narrow clock transition of the stable 40Ca isotope. The experimental methods that achieve this and approach sub-microkelvin temperature of the laser cooled bosonic isotopes of alkaline earths are inspected. The blue laser with a uniform intensity distribution in the beam is useful to maintain the trapped number of cold atoms during these experiments. The spectroscopic properties of the relative transitions in Calcium atom are also reviewed following relevant publications in the area. The constructed blue laser can be used as a primary wavelength source in the lasers network for cooling and trapping of Calcium atoms. These experiments will constitute part of the project to build an optical atom clock referenced to 40Ca narrow linewidth transition. The blue laser is constructed by generating second harmonic in a Potassium Niobate crystal, which is temperature controlled to use a type-I noncritical phase-matching of the optical nonlinear process. The power of the intracavity-generated second harmonic depends on the resonance properties of the optical resonator where this nonlinear crystal is placed. The study is aimed at characterising the designed optical resonator and the experimental parameters that describe it. The formula is derived that relates the resonance power enhancement coefficient with finesse and the power coupling contrast of a passive optical cavity. The obtained relationship is verfied during the experiments. The produced efficiency of the intracavity second harmonic generation is approx. 0.0023 mWblue/(mWred)2. The research work also examines the noise characteristics of the infrared diode laser that is used as a pump source for the intracavity generated second harmonic and determines the spectroscopic precision of the produced blue light. The frequency locking experiment is analysed using the unbalanced scheme of the polarisation stabilisation technique. The designed optical buildup cavity became a part of the unbalanced frequency discriminator in such a scheme. The results demonstrate high gain of frequency noise suppression of the stabilised laser. The unbalanced arrangement of the H}ansch-Couillaud technique has been possible due to a very low amplitude noise of semiconductor lasers.

Esta dissertação propõe o projeto e a implementação de um sintetizador de sinal pertencente à banda X, com frequência de 9.192 GHz, para promover a transição atômica do átomo de césio durante o ciclo de operação do padrão atômico de frequência do CePOF/IFSC. Diferente do sintetizador em uso, este provê duas fontes de sinais, a fim de realizar a alimentação simétrica da cavidade de micro-ondas. A alimentação simétrica apresenta uma melhoria em relação à montagem experimental atual e visa atenuar os efeitos de gradiente de potência ao quais os átomos estão expostos enquanto cruzam a cavidade de interrogação. O sintetizador também apresenta um controle de fase em um dos sinais, para que seja possível um ajuste de fase entre eles, permitindo que ambos cheguem à cavidade de interrogação em fase. O método utilizado para a síntese dos sinais é o indireto, onde o sinal de interesse é obtido por meio de osciladores e componentes que possibilitam a manipulação algébrica das frequências, aliados aos circuitos de travamento para controle dos osciladores / This text considers the design and implementation of an X-band signal synthesizer, with a 9.192 GHz frequency, to promote the atomic transition of cesium during the operation process of the CePOF/IFSCs atomic frequency standard. Unlike the current synthesizer, the present one provides two sources of signal, in order to perform the symmetrical feed of the microwave cavity. The symmetrical feed is an improvement compared to the current experimental set up and aims at reducing the power gradient effects to which the atoms are exposed when travelling throughout the interrogation cavity. The synthesizer also has a phase control in one of the signals, in order to ensure that both signals will get into the interrogation cavity in phase. The synthesis method used is the indirect one; the desired signal is formed by means of oscillators and devices that allow the algebraic manipulation of frequencies, combined with lock circuits to control the oscillators

Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung und Untersuchung von optischen Absolutfrequenzreferenzen basierend auf rovibronischen Übergängen in molekularen Jod. Dabei werden Methoden der Doppler-freien Sättigungsspektroskopie angewendet, um einzelne Übergänge der Hyperfeinstruktur mit Linienbreiten unterhalb von 1 MHz im B-X System von molekularem Iod bei 532 nm, der zweiten harmonischen des Nd:YAG-Laser, aufzulösen. Elektronische Regelungstechniken ermöglichen eine präzise Stabilisierung der optischen Frequenz auf die Linienmitte der Übergänge mit einer Auflösung von Teilen in 10^5. Mit dem Ziel einer weltraumtauglichen Absolutfrequenzreferenz für zukünftige Weltraummissionen, wurden zwei Spektroskopiemodule konzipiert und in quasi-monolithischen Glaskeramik-Aufbauten, als sogenanntes elegant breadboard model und engineering model, realisiert. Diese Jodfrequenzreferenzen wurden im Detail in Bezug auf ihre Frequenzstabilität und Reproduzierbarkeit untersucht und Letzteres wurde für die angestrebte Weltraumqualifizierung ersten Umwelttests, sowohl vibrations- als auch thermischen Belastungstests, unterzogen. Für die Untersuchung der Frequenzstabilität dieser Jodreferenzen wurde ein auf einen optischen Resonator hoher Güte stabilisiertes Lasersystem für direkte Frequenzvergleiche bei 1064 nm realisiert. Die Analyse der Frequenzstabilität der Jod Referenzen zeigt eine Frequenzstabilität von 6x10^−15 bei 1 s, und weniger als 2x10^−15 bei 100 s Integrationszeit, was der bis heute besten veröffentlichten Frequenzstabilität entspricht die mit Jod Referenzen erreicht wurde. Mit der erreichten Frequenzstabilität ermöglichen diese Absolutfrequenzreferenzen präzise Lasersysteme für zukünftige Weltraummissionen wie z.B. zur Detektion von Gravitationswellen, zur Vermessung des Gravitationsfelds der Erde oder für Präzisionstest fundamentaler Theorien der Physik. / This thesis deals with the development and investigation of optical absolute frequency references based on rovibronic transitions in molecular iodine. Doppler-free saturation spectroscopy methods are employed to resolve individual transitions of the hyperfine structure with linewidths below 1 MHz in the B-X system of molecular iodine at 532 nm with the second harmonic of Nd:YAG lasers. Electronic feedback control systems are employed for laser frequency stabilization to the line center of the optical transitions with a line splitting of 10^5. With the goal of a space qualified optical absolute frequency reference for future laser-interferometric space missions, two spectroscopy setups were designed and realized in quasi-monolithic, glass-ceramic setups as so called elegant bread board model and engineering model. These iodine references were characterized in detail with respect to their frequency stability and reproducibility and the engineering model was subject to environmental tests, including vibrations and thermal cycling to verify its applicability in future space missions. For the investigation of the frequency instability of these iodine references, a frequency stabilized laser system was realized based on a temperature controlled high Finesse ULE cavity for direct frequency comparisons at 1064 nm. Analysis of the frequency stability of the iodine references revealed exceptionally low fractional frequency instability of 6x10^−15 at 1 s, averaging down to less than 2×10^−15 at 100 s integration time, constituting the best reported stability achieved with iodine references to date. With the demonstrated performance, these absolute frequency references enable precision laser systems required for future space missions that are dedicated to, e.g., the detection of gravitational waves, mapping of the Earth’s gravitational field or precision test of fundamental physics.

Optical frequency standards are necessary tools for accurate measurement of time and length. In practice these standards are stabilised laser systems locked to a known frequency reference. These references are typically the resonant frequencies of the atoms of an absorption medium that have been theoretically calculated to a high degree of accuracy. This thesis describes a combination of experimental and theoretical research performed on modulation transfer spectroscopy (MTS)--a technique used to frequency stabilise a laser in order to produce an accurate frequency reference--with emphasis placed on developing techniques and procedures to overcome the limitations found in existing MTS stabilised laser systems. The focus of the thesis is to generate a highly accurate frequency reference by researching the system parameters that will increase the signal to noise ratio and improve the accuracy of the reference through refinement of the signal structure. The early theoretical interpretation of MTS was effectively a low absorption approximation that occurs at low pressures. This approximation ignores the depletion of beam energy through absorption and is a distinct limitation of the theoretical model in its ability to accurately predict the influence of a range of system parameters on signal strength and structure. To overcome this limitation a 3-D (or volumetric) analysis was developed and is presented here for the first time. This volumetric model is a measure of two depleted beams interacting collinearly in an absorbing medium of iodine and is described to accurately predict the signal maximum as a function of pressure for all wavelengths. This model was found to be more accurate in predicting the influence of system parameters on the signal strength and structure, including that of pump beam intensity, pressure, saturation parameter, cell length and modulation parameters. The volumetric model is a novel approach to MTS theory but is more complex computationally than the traditional low pressure model and therefore more difficult to implement in many situations. To overcome this problem a hybrid model was developed as a combination of the low pressure and volumetric models. The comparison between the rigorous volume model and the hybrid model indicate that there is a deviation in the signal strength at high pressures. However, the agreement was very good in the pressure regimes that are commonly used to realise actual frequency references. Comparison of the hybrid model to experimental data was performed over a range of different wavelengths (532 nm, 543.5 nm, 612 nm and 633 nm) and found to be in close agreement. This gives confidence in the model to accurately predict signal strength and structure in any situation. Three mechanisms have been identified that limit the accuracy of frequency references due to the creation of residual amplitude modulation (RAM) where it shifts the frequency of the reference. The influence of RAM is included in the hybrid model as a ratio of the amplitude modulated and frequency modulated components of the saturating beam. These RAM production mechanisms result from the modulation of the saturating beam, the overlap of the beams in the medium, and the differential absorption of the sidebands in the medium. While the first mechanism has been previously reported the latter two are discussed here in detail for the first time. RAM generated by the modulators used (acousto-optic or electro-optic modulators) was typically of the order of 10% to 12%, depending on the excursion of the created sidebands. RAM generated by an asymmetric beam overlap with the modulators used was found to be as large as 30%. A combination of these two independent mechanisms can be used to provide a "RAM-free" state of the system by using one to cancel the effects of the other. The third RAM generation process--medium induced RAM--is difficult to remove but through a careful combination of absorption related parameters--namely, pump intensity, cell length, pressure and detector phase--the effects of RAM can be removed, leading to a distortion free MTS signal. Further investigation into the predictions provided by the hybrid model shows that there is a complex relationship between cell length and the optimum pressure required for maximum signal strength, such that longer cell lengths will not necessarily improve the signal strength. This is contrary to conventional thinking and is important in the MTS design process to reduce unnecessary costs and improve the signal to noise ratio and frequency accuracy. Optimisation of frequency stabilised laser systems using MTS are generally performed using trial and error. Comparison of these optimum parameter values to those predicted by the hybrid model show that for popular wavelengths such as 532 nm they are similar. In addition, the hybrid model is able to predict the frequency shifts that arise within the system parameters used and has shown that existing systems being used at 532 nm, 633 nm and 778 nm could improve their signal to noise ratio and accuracy through a variation in the parameters. A methodology based on the hybrid model is presented that can be used to calculate the optimum parameters for maximum signal strength and a "RAM-free" state for any wavelength. This systematic approach can therefore be used to guide the design of actual frequency stabilised laser systems prior to and during the design process.