O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo sistemático para a obtenção de um filme polimérico a partir da eletrooxidação do furfural (2-furanoaldeído). O filme foi crescido sobre a superfície do eletrodo de platina (Pt) e sobre carbono vítreo reticulado (CVR). Três técnicas eletroquímicas foram usadas: cronopotenciometria com correntes de 10 mA, voltametria cíclica por ciclagens sucessivas no intervalo de potencial de 2,0 V à 2,70 V (Ag/AgCl) e a cronoamperometria, no potencial de 2,65 V (Ag/AgCl). Diferentes eletrólitos foram testados em solução aquosa sobre Pt. O sal biftalato de potássio foi o eletrólito suporte mais adequado para formação do filme sobre ambos eletrodos, Pt e CVR. Os resultados obtidos confirmam a formação de um filme branco sobre a superfície dos eletrodos, entretanto, com alguma solubilização no próprio meio. Esta solubilidade do filme em meio aquoso permitiu atribuir-lhe características de polieletrólito. Evidências desta característica se confirmam pelas propriedades físico-químicas das soluções do filme testadas resultando no aumento da acidez e no aumento da condutividade do meio, quando se comparam as soluções de biftalato ácido de potássio com as do filme polimérico Os resultados revelam a formação de um filme poroso e espesso sobre a superfície dos eletrodos, com características que dependem do método eletroquímico empregado, bem como do tempo de polarização. A visualização do filme foi registrada por fotografias digitais e caracterizada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. O crescimento do filme pelo método cronopotenciométrico forneceu os melhores resultados em termos de aderência e volume. Uma observação importante refere-se ao caráter condutor do filme formado, uma vez que medidas eletroquímicas dos eletrodos modificados não acusaram um decaimento significativo das correntes. Além das medidas eletroquímicas, a condutividade do polímero, determinada pelo método das quatro pontas, resultou num valor de 100 µS cm-1 para o obtido potenciostaticamente e de 150 µS cm-1 para o obtido galvanostaticamente. A caracterização do filme envolveu as medidas térmicas de calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC) e a análise termogravimétrica (TGA). As medidas espectroscópicas como o ultravioleta, infravermelho, Raman, ressonância magnética nuclear de H1 e de C13 diretamente com o filme formado ou através de suas soluções em solventes adequados, confirmaram a participação de ambos os anéis ftálico e furânico na estrutura do filme.

O presente trabalho apresenta um estudo sistemático para a obtenção de um filme polimérico a partir da eletrooxidação do furfural (2-furanoaldeído). O filme foi crescido sobre a superfície do eletrodo de platina (Pt) e sobre carbono vítreo reticulado (CVR). Três técnicas eletroquímicas foram usadas: cronopotenciometria com correntes de 10 mA, voltametria cíclica por ciclagens sucessivas no intervalo de potencial de 2,0 V à 2,70 V (Ag/AgCl) e a cronoamperometria, no potencial de 2,65 V (Ag/AgCl). Diferentes eletrólitos foram testados em solução aquosa sobre Pt. O sal biftalato de potássio foi o eletrólito suporte mais adequado para formação do filme sobre ambos eletrodos, Pt e CVR. Os resultados obtidos confirmam a formação de um filme branco sobre a superfície dos eletrodos, entretanto, com alguma solubilização no próprio meio. Esta solubilidade do filme em meio aquoso permitiu atribuir-lhe características de polieletrólito. Evidências desta característica se confirmam pelas propriedades físico-químicas das soluções do filme testadas resultando no aumento da acidez e no aumento da condutividade do meio, quando se comparam as soluções de biftalato ácido de potássio com as do filme polimérico Os resultados revelam a formação de um filme poroso e espesso sobre a superfície dos eletrodos, com características que dependem do método eletroquímico empregado, bem como do tempo de polarização. A visualização do filme foi registrada por fotografias digitais e caracterizada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. O crescimento do filme pelo método cronopotenciométrico forneceu os melhores resultados em termos de aderência e volume. Uma observação importante refere-se ao caráter condutor do filme formado, uma vez que medidas eletroquímicas dos eletrodos modificados não acusaram um decaimento significativo das correntes. Além das medidas eletroquímicas, a condutividade do polímero, determinada pelo método das quatro pontas, resultou num valor de 100 µS cm-1 para o obtido potenciostaticamente e de 150 µS cm-1 para o obtido galvanostaticamente. A caracterização do filme envolveu as medidas térmicas de calorimetria diferencial de varredura (DSC) e a análise termogravimétrica (TGA). As medidas espectroscópicas como o ultravioleta, infravermelho, Raman, ressonância magnética nuclear de H1 e de C13 diretamente com o filme formado ou através de suas soluções em solventes adequados, confirmaram a participação de ambos os anéis ftálico e furânico na estrutura do filme.

Given the volatile, generally high price of crude oil, as well as environmental concerns associated with its use as a fuel, development of alternative energy sources is currently of considerable interest. Lignocellulose-derived energy has the potential to supplant traditional fossil fuels in the future because of its economic and environmental advantages. Lignocellulosic biomass is abundant and renewable. Lignocellulose is primarily composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, which can be converted by acid hydrolysis to simple sugars used in fermentation to produce biofuels. In this study, hemicellulose was hydrolyzed with different concentrations of hydrochloric acid at different temperatures. The resulting components were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The hydrolysis of cellulose was similarly characterized, with two additional parameters, the degree of polymerization (DP) and the crystallinity index (CrI), which were analyzed by Ubbelohde viscometer and X-ray diffraction respectively. The experimental results indicate that the hydrolysis rate of hemicellulose and the generation rate of furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) increased with increasing hydrochloric acid concentrations and reaction temperatures. In the selected five monosaccharides, xylose, glucose, mannose, arabinose and galactose, xylose has the highest hydrolysis rate and the accumulation of furfural during xylose hydrolysis is also the highest. Moreover, the hydrolysis rate of cellulose and the generation rate of glucose also increased with increasing hydrochloric acid concentrations and reaction temperatures. DP and CrI, both decreased when the cellulose was treated in concentrated hydrochloric acid. The rate of change of DP increased with the concentrations of acid and the reaction temperatures. The change rate of CrI increases by increasing concentration of acid and the temperature when it is above 0℃, while the CrI index decrease sharply when the reaction temperature was kept below 0℃. Experimental results also show that the hydrolysis rate of cellulose is much lower than that of hemicellulose.

No description available.

L'acide furan-2,5-dicarboxylique (FDCA) a été répertorié en 2010 comme l'une des 10 principales molécules bio sourcées, pouvant servir de blocs de construction moléculaire pour remplacer l'acide téréphtalique d'origine pétrochimique, dans la production des polyesters à base de végétal. Ce composé fait partie de la famille des furanes et est obtenu après déshydratation et oxydation de sucres. Une des voies de synthèse utilise un intermédiaire clé, le 5-hydroxyméthylfurfural (HMF). Cependant, il n'existe aujourd'hui aucune production industrielle du HMF, en raison de sa réactivité intrinsèque. La formation de ce composé représente ainsi une des étapes limitantes dans la production de FDCA. Dans ce contexte, nous avons envisagé de nouvelles stratégies de synthèse du HMF économiquement favorables et respectueuses de l'environnement. L'étude de la déshydratation des monosaccharides présents en abondance dans la biomasse lignocellulosique a tout d'abord été effectuée. Les voies de synthèse ont été choisies dans la perspective d'un possible dimensionnement industriel et les coûts de production ont été minimisés afin d'obtenir le HMF à un prix compétitif. Des cristaux de HMF d'une pureté suffisante, pour une application industrielle, ont ainsi été fournis à partir de D-fructose, après une synthèse dans le diméthylsulfoxide sans catalyseur et une extraction liquide-liquide du composé. Le recyclage des solvants organiques utilisés pour la synthèse et pour l'extraction représente un réel avantage du procédé. A partir de D-glucose, la synthèse en milieu organique en deux étapes, sans purification intermédiaire, mais avec seulement une filtration, fournit un sirop de HMF concentré. Le catalyseur utilisé pour l'étape d'isomérisation du D-glucose en D-fructose a été recyclé avec succès. La conversion directe de la cellulose en HMF, dans un milieu contenant un solvant organique, a ensuite été abordée. La stratégie mise en place s'inscrit dans une démarche d'éco-conception visant à obtenir le HMF à partir de biomasse lignocellulosique, sans traitement préalable. L'accessibilité de la cellulose par sa solubilisation dans le milieu réactionnel est le premier défi à relever pour sa conversion ultérieure. La combinaison d'un catalyseur chloré et d'un système composé d'un sel d'ammonium et d'un solvant organique a été efficace pour produire le HMF. Du point de vue de la chimie durable, ce procédé présente de réels avantages tels que l'utilisation de réactifs (sel d'ammonium et catalyseur) peu onéreux et une production de HMF à partir de matières premières renouvelables. L'adaptation de cette méthode à la biomasse lignocellulosique a fourni des rendements modestes mais encourageants pour la suite des travaux. / 2,5-Furan dicarboxylique acid (FDCA) was listed in 2010 as one of the top 10 bio sourced molecules which can serve as building blocks to replace the petrochemical terephthalic acid in the production of polyesters based-plant. This compound belongs to the family of furans and can be obtained after dehydration and oxidation of sugars. One way of synthesis uses a key intermediate, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). However, there is currently no commercial production of HMF because of its intrinsic reactivity. The formation of this compound thus represents one of the limiting steps in the production of FDCA. In this context, we have explored new strategies for the synthesis of HMF which could be economically and environmentally favorable. The study of the dehydration of monosaccharides which are abundant in lignocellulosic biomass was first carried out. Synthetic routes have been selected in view of a possible industrial development and in order to reduce as possible as we can the cost of production to obtain the HMF at a competitive price. Crystals of HMF with sufficient purity for industrial applications has been supplied from D-fructose after a synthesis in dimethylsulfoxide without catalyst and after a liquid-liquid extraction. Recycling of organic solvents used for the synthesis and the extraction represents a real benefit for this process. From D-glucose, a synthesis in organic medium in two steps without purification but only filtration afforded a syrup of concentrated HMF. The catalyst used for the isomerization step of the D-glucose into D-fructose was successfully recycled. The direct conversion of cellulose into HMF in a medium composed of an organic solvent was then approached. The implemented strategy is part of an eco-design approach to get the HMF from lignocellulosic biomass, without pretreatment. Accessibility of cellulose by its dissolution in the reaction medium was the first challenge for subsequent conversion. The combination of a chloride catalyst and a system composed of an ammonium salt and an organic solvent was effective to produce HMF. From the view point of sustainable chemistry, this method gathers noticeable advantages such as use of cheap ammonium additive, cheap and naturally abundant metal and allows production of HMF from renewable raw materials. The adjustment method to the lignocellulosic biomass has provided modest but encouraging yields for further work.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-06-08T13:19:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 rafaelfelipecoelhoneves.pdf: 4428183 bytes, checksum: c285f713f0bc1b3a74476dcda5baab40 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-07-13T13:27:17Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 rafaelfelipecoelhoneves.pdf: 4428183 bytes, checksum: c285f713f0bc1b3a74476dcda5baab40 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-13T13:27:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 rafaelfelipecoelhoneves.pdf: 4428183 bytes, checksum: c285f713f0bc1b3a74476dcda5baab40 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-10-01 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / A substituição de combustíveis fósseis por biocombustíveis obtidos a partir de fontes renováveis consiste em uma importante estratégia para minimizar as emissões de gases do efeito estufa. Neste sentido, a conversão da biomassa lignocelulósica em biocombustíveis representa uma fonte sustentável que atende à demanda global de energia. Elétrons de baixa energia em plasmas têm potencial para superar a resistência físico-química da biomassa possibilitando a geração de produtos químicos de alto valor. Isto ocorre devido à quebra química induzida pela captura eletrônica dissociativa ou por processos de fragmentação através da excitação ou ionização por impacto de elétrons. Nesta tese foi investigado o espalhamento de elétrons pelas biomoléculas fenol e furfural, que são subunidades da biomassa lignocelulósica. Espectros experimentais de perda de energia de elétrons (EPEE) foram registrados para o fenol e furfural, para energias de impacto de 15, 20, 30, 40 e 250 eV, para ângulos entre 10◦ e 90◦. Estes espectros foram usados para obtenção de Seção de Choque (SC) e Força de Oscilador Generalizada (FOG) para as transições eletrônicas permitidas por dipolo, possibilitando também, a determinação de suas Forças de Oscilador Óptico. Seções de Choque Diferenciais (SCD) foram medidas para a excitação por impacto de elétrons de estados eletrônicos, bem como de modos vibracionais compostos não resolvidos do fenol. Estas investigações fornecem os primeiros resultados publicados na literatura para os estados eletrônicos excitados singleto e tripleto do fenol, até o primeiro potencial de ionização, e ainda, para as Seções de Choque de excitações vibracionais. Foram também obtidos dados de Seções de Choque Integrais (SCI) para excitações eletrônicas e vibracionais por impacto de elétrons em fenol. Dados de Seções de Choque Diferenciais Triplas (SCDT) para a ionização do fenol por impacto de elétrons (e, 2e) foram gerados através de uma cinemática coplanar assimétrica para energia eletrônica incidente de 250eV. Para o furfural, os dados experimentais foram utilizados em conjunto com cálculos teóricos na atribuição de seus estados excitados. A boa concordância entre os resultados teóricos e os experimentais permite fornecer a primeira atribuição quantitativa da espectroscopia dos estados eletrônicos do furfural na faixa de energia estudada. / Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels obtained from renewable sources is an important strategy to minimize greenhouse gas emissions. In this sense, the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into biofuels is a sustainable source of energy to meet global energy demands. Low-energy electrons in plasmas have the potential to overcome the biomass physicochemical resistance enabling the production of high value chemicals. This happens due to chemical breakdown induced through dissociative electron attachment or electron impact excitation- or ionizationfragmentation processes. In this thesis was investigated the electron scattering by the biomolecules phenol and furfural, that are subunits of the lignocellulosic biomass. Experimental electron-energy loss spectra (EELS) were recorded to phenol and furfural, measured at impact energies of 15, 20, 30, 40 and 250 eV, for angles between 10◦ and 90◦. These spectra were used to derive Cross Sections (CS) and Generalized Oscillator Strengths (GOS) for the dipoleallowed electronic transitions, also allowing the determination of their Optical Oscillator Strengths. Differential cross sections (DCS’s) were measured for the electron-impact excitation of the electronic states as well as of a number of composite unresolved vibrational modes in phenol. These investigations provide the first results published on the literature to singlet and triplet excited electronic states of phenol, up to the first ionization potential and, to the vibrational excitation Cross Sections. In addition, it were obtained integral cross sections (ICS’s) data for electron impact vibrational and electronic excitations in phenol. Triple differential cross sections (TDCS) data for the electron-impact ionization of phenol (e,2e) were generated with coplanar asymmetrical kinematics for an incident electron energy of 250 eV. Regarding to furfural, the experimental data were used along with calculations in order to assign the excited states. The good agreement between the theoretical results and the measurements allows providing the first quantitative assignment of the electronic state spectroscopy of furfural over the energy range studied.

Submitted by Nathália Faria da Silva (nathaliafsilva.ufv@gmail.com) on 2017-07-12T14:48:33Z No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 420337 bytes, checksum: b716997ea739661f6b442ce3e6352641 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-12T14:48:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 420337 bytes, checksum: b716997ea739661f6b442ce3e6352641 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2001-06-08 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / No presente trabalho avaliou-se o emprego de resinas de troca iônica quanto a sua capacidade em adsorver ácido acético, furfural e hidróximetil furfural presentes no hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana-de-áçúcar obtido por hidrólise ácida. A metodologia empregada consistiu em determinar, inicialmente, as curvas cinéticas de adsorção para cada um destes compostos. Em seguida foram construídas as isotermas de adsorção, também para estes compostos. O mesmo procedimento foi utilizado para três diferentes tipos de resinas (A-500, A-103S e C-155S – PUROLITE®). Nos experimentos de cinética de adsorção encontrou-se que dez minutos de contato, entre a resina e o hidrolisado hemicelulósico, foram suficientes para que o equilíbrio do processo de sorção fosse atingido. Observou-se também, nos testes referentes à determinação das isotermas, que a resina que apresentou uma melhor capacidade em adsorver os compostos foi a resina aniônica A-500, visto que esta apresentou um maior valor de q - quantidade de composto adsorvido (mg) por quantidade de resina (g), para ácido acético e para hidróximetil furfural. Estes valores foram, aproximadamente: 5,7 mg· g^-1 para o ácido acético, 0,2 mg· g^-1 para o furfural e 0,57 mg· g^-1 para o hidróximetil furfural. Foi possível observar, nas condições estudadas, que a resina aniônica A-103S também adsorve ácido acético 3,9 mg· g^-1 , furfural 0,31 mg· g^-1 e hidróximetil furfural 0,3 mg· g^-1 , porém em menor quantidade que a resina A-500. No entanto, a resina catiônica C-155S, não apresentou bom desempenho para adsorver esses compostos. Os valores de q para esta resina foram, aproximadamente, 2,5mg· g^-1 para o ácido acético, 0,11 mg· g^-1 para o furfural e 0,05 mg· g^-1 para o hidróximetil furfural. / In this work, it was evaluated the use of ionic exchange resins in relation to its capacity to adsorb acetic acid, furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural present in sugar cane bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysate obtained through acidic hydrolysis. The methodology employed consisted in determining, initially, the kinetic curves of adsorption for each one of these compounds as well as the adsorption isothermals. The same procedure was equally done for three different resins. (A- 500, A-103S, and C-155S - PUROLITE®). In the experiments of kinetics of adsorption, it was found that ten minutes of contact between the resin and the hemicellulose hydrolysate, were enough to attain balance in the adsorption process. It was also observed, in the experiments of the determination of the isotherms, that the resin wich presented a better capacity in adsorbing the compounds was the anionic resin A-500, because this one presented a higher q value- amount of adsorbed compound (mg) per quantity of resin (g), for acetic acid and for hydroxymethyl furfural. These values were approximately 5,7 mg· g^-1 for the acetic acid, 0,2 mg· g^-1 for the furfural and 0,57 mg· g^-1 for the hydroxymethyl furfural. It was possible to observe, under the studied conditions, that the anionic resin A-103S, also adsorbs acetic acid 3,9 mg· g^-1, furfural 0,31 mg· g^-1 and hydroxymethyl furfural 0,3 mg· g^-1, but in smaller quantity than the resin A-500. Nevertheless, the cationic resin C-155S did not present a good performance in adsorbing these compounds. The q values were, approximately, 2,5mg· g^-1 for the acetic acid, 0,11 mg· g^-1 for the furfural, and 0,05 mg· g^-1 for the hydroxymethyl furfural.

Les solvants occupent une place prépondérante dans l’industrie chimique et se retrouvent au cœur de nombreuses applications telles que la formulation de produits phytosanitaires, d’encres ou de peintures, le nettoyage industriel ou les procédés d’extraction, de synthèse ou de séparation. L’épuisement des ressources pétrolières, le durcissement de la réglementation, et une prise de conscience collective motivent le développement d’alternatives à l’utilisation de solvants pétrochimiques. En effet, environ 45% des émissions de composés organiques volatils (COVs) en France proviennent de l’utilisation des solvants, qui, pour la plupart, présentent une empreinte environnementale et sanitaire peu favorable. Le panorama des solvants industriels amorce inévitablement une mutation, qui nécessite la recherche de solvants plus respectueux de l’environnement et des utilisateurs, au regard de leurs propriétés et de leur mode de production. Outre les liquides ioniques, les fluides supercritiques et les solvants fluorés qualifiés de solvants verts, les biosolvants sont apparus comme une solution alternative capable de répondre à un grand nombre de spécifications requises dans diverses applications. L’élaboration de biosolvants s’accompagne d’un changement de matière première, au profit de ressources renouvelables issues de la biomasse. Parmi les molécules plateforme biosourcées utilisées pour la synthèse de bioproduits, le furfural, obtenu par déshydratation des sucres contenus dans les rafles de maïs, a été sélectionné dans le cadre de cette étude visant à développer de nouveaux biosolvants, en collaboration avec la société Rhodia-Solvay (projet InBioSynSolv). Ainsi, afin de substituer des solvants conventionnels utilisés pour formuler des actifs phytosanitaires ou pour le nettoyage industriel, deux méthodologies, différentes de l’approche essais et erreurs, ont été étudiées. La première méthodologie, prédictive, se base sur la prédiction des propriétés avant la synthèse des molécules. La formulation inverse est, quant à elle, une méthodologie innovante qui permet de concevoir des molécules de biosolvants grâce à un laboratoire virtuel; les étapes de génération de structures moléculaires et de prédiction des propriétés, sont intégrées à un outil informatique d’aide au design moléculaire (CAMD) qui propose des solutions répondant aux spécifications visées. Dans un premier temps, ces méthodologies ont conduit à identifier un pool de molécules candidates dérivées du furfural et susceptibles de jouer le rôle de solvant pour les applications envisagées. Dans un deuxième temps, la faisabilité des filières de leur production a été étudiée, depuis la molécule plateforme jusqu’à l’utilisation du biosolvant au sein d’une formulation. Pour cela, les molécules candidates ont été obtenues selon différentes voies de synthèse, que l’on a caractérisées à l’aide de la détermination d’indicateurs verts. Une démarche d’éco conception a également contribué à la mise en place d’une approche multi critère intégrant les aspects techniques, environnementaux et socio- économiques. Enfin, la production d’échantillons a permis de vérifier expérimentalement les propriétés recherchées, et de valider l’intérêt des méthodologies de substitution de solvants utilisées, en termes de gain de temps et d’efficacité. Celles-ci pourront être généralisées au développement de différents bioproduits pour accompagner les évolutions des marchés auxquelles doit faire face l’industrie chimique. / The solvents play a significant role in the chemical industry and are at the heart of many applications such as the formulation of pesticides, inks or paints, industrial cleaning or extraction processes, synthesis and separation. The depletion of fossil resources, stricter regulations and collective awareness incite the development of alternatives to the use of petrochemical solvents. In fact, about 45% of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) come from the use of solvents, most of which have a very unfavorable environmental and health impact. The panorama of industrial solvents inevitably initiates a change, which requires the search for more eco friendly solvents in terms of their properties and their mode of production. In addition to the ionic liquids, supercritical fluids and fluorinated solvents, called green solvents, biosolvents emerged as an alternative capable of meeting a large number of specifications required in various applications. Developing biosolvents is accompanied by a change in raw material, from petroleum to renewable resources from biomass. Among the biobased platform molecules used for the synthesis of bioproducts, furfural, obtained by dehydration of sugars in corn cobs, was selected as part of this study to develop new biosolvents in collaboration with Rhodia-Solvay (InBioSynSolv project). Thus, to replace conventional solvents used in phytosanitary formulations or for industrial cleaning, two methodologies different from the tests and error approach, were studied. The first methodology, predictive, is based on the properties prediction before the synthesis of the molecules. The inverse formulation is, in turn, an innovative methodology to design molecules of biosolvents through a virtual laboratory. Stages of generation of molecular structures and properties prediction are integrated in a computer-aided molecular design tool (CAMD) providing solutions that meet the outlined specifications. First, these methodologies have led to identify a pool of candidate molecules derived from furfural that may act as a solvent for the intended applications. In a second step, the feasibility of their production chains has been studied from the molecule platform to the use of the biosolvent in a formulation. For this, the candidate molecules were obtained by different synthetic routes, which were characterized using the determination of green indicators. An eco-design approach has also contributed to take into account different criteria including technical, environmental and socio-economic aspects. Finally, with the production of samples, properties were experimentally verified, to validate the interest of solvents substitution methodologies in terms of time savings and efficiency. These could be generalized to the development of various bioproducts to make possible innovation in the chemical industry.

Den nära förestående bristen på fossila resurser i kombination med deras associerade miljöfarlighet betonar behovet av utveckling av alternativa, mer hållbara kemikalier. I denna studie utvecklades en enzymatisk kaskad för förädling av 5-(hydroxymetyl)furfural (HMF) till 5-(aminometyl)-2-furfuraldehyd (AMFA). Kaskaden omfattar transaminering av HMF till 5-(hydroxymetyl)furfurylamin (HMFA) följt av oxidation av HMFA till AMFA. Transaminas från Silicibacter pomeroyi (SpATA) immobiliserades via his6-taggar på EziG-proteinbärare från EnginZyme AB. Proteinbärarna placerades i spin-kolonner under transamineringen vilket möjliggjorde omhändertagande av SpATA efter transamineringen av HMF. För oxidationen utvärderades alkoholdyhydrogenas från Thermoanaerobacter brockii och hästlever samt galaktosoxidas från Dactylium dendroides (GOase). Omsättning och produktbildning analyserades med HPLC. Resultaten indikerar att SpATA effektivt katalyserar transamineringen av HMF, att alkohol dehydrogenasen inte förmår katalysera oxidationen av HMF till HMFA och att galaktosoxidaset kan oxidera HMFA med hög omsättning vilket leder oss att tro att den föreslagna kaskaden för förädling av HMF till AMFA är möjlig. / The imminent shortage of fossil resources coupled with their associated environmental hazards stresses the need for the development of alternative, more sustainable chemicals. In this study an enzymatic cascade was developed for the valorisation of 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF) into 5-(aminomethyl)-2-furfuraldehyde (AMFA). The cascade involves the transamination of HMF into 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfurylamine (HMFA) followed by the oxidation of HMFA into AMFA. Transaminases from Silicibacter pomeroyi (SpATA) was immobilised via his6-tags onto EziG-protein carriers from EnginZyme AB. The protein carriers were placed in spin-columns during the transamination which allowed for salvaging of the SpATA after the transamination of HMF. For the oxidation, alcohol dehydrogenases from Thermoanaerobacter brockii and horse liver as well as galactose oxidase from Dactylium dendroides (GOase) were evaluated. The conversion and product formation were analysed by HPLC. The results indicate that the SpATA efficiently catalyses the transamination of HMF, that the alcohol dehydrogenases are not able to catalyse the oxidation of HMF nor HMFA and that the GOase can oxidize HMFA with high conversion which leads us to believe that the proposed cascade for the valorisation of HMF to AMFA is feasible.

Le CO2 et la biomasse sont abondants dans la nature. La conversion de ces deux éléments constitutifs en carburants ou en produits chimiques à valeur ajoutée par des méthodes électrochimiques est essentielle pour atténuer la crise énergétique et réduire la pollution de l'environnement, ainsi que pour atteindre la carbone neutralité. Au cours des dernières décennies, de nombreux efforts ont été consacrés à ce domaine, mais la plupart d'entre eux se concentrent sur la conception de catalyseurs et l'amélioration des performances, et seules quelques recherches se concentrent sur de nouvelles réactions ou sur le mécanisme de ces réactions. Ici, nous développons une série de nouvelles réactions et étudions les mécanismes de ces réactions en utilisant la spectroscopie in situ, les principaux résultats sont les suivants : 1) Les réactions de réduction du furfural ont été menées en utilisant une feuille de Cu électrochimique comme catalyseur, et l'alcool furfural (FA, efficacité faradique, FE : 43,0%) et le 2-méthylfurane (MF, FE : 57,5%) ont été obtenus après électrolyse sous -0,43V (par rapport à l'électrode à hydrogène réversible, RHE). Les effets des différentes facettes du catalyseur sur la sélectivité ont été étudiés, et le Cu (110) produit préférentiellement de l'AF, tandis que les défauts sont les sites actifs pour la formation de MF. La spectroscopie Raman operando a montré que la production de FA et de MF partage le même intermédiaire à l'étape initiale, avec différents sites actifs conduisant aux différentes voies entre les étapes intermédiaires et suivantes et générant différents produits. 2) Des produits de liaison C-N (acétamide et formamide) ont été obtenus par la réaction de réduction du CO2 (CO2RR) avec la combinaison du substrat NH3 et des électrocatalyseurs commerciaux à base de nanoparticules de Cu ou de CuO. Avec l'optimisation, la FE maximale de ces deux produits est de ~10% au total, et la meilleure condition de réaction est 50mg Cu NPs, 1M KOH, avec 0.3M NH3, à -0.78V (vs. RHE) pendant 30 mins. L'IR in situ a montré que la formation de formamide et de formate partage le même intermédiaire, et que la production d'acétamide et d'acétate subit une voie de réaction similaire. 3) L'hydroxyméthanesulfonate (HMS), le sulfoacétate (SA) et le méthanesulfonate (produits de liaison C-S, FE représente 6% au total) ont été obtenus par le couplage CO2RR avec l'ajout de sulfite (SO32-), et des NPs de Cu2O synthétisées par la méthode de chimie humide ont été utilisées comme électrocatalyseurs. Parmi ces trois composés à liaison C-S, le HMS est le principal produit, la FE pouvant atteindre un maximum de 6 %. Le XRD in situ a montré que Cu0 est l'espèce active pour le processus de couplage C-S. Les calculs operando Raman et DFT ont montré que *CHOH est l'intermédiaire clé dans la formation de la liaison C-S, et que le couplage entre *CHOH et SO32- est l'étape qui détermine le taux. / CO2 and biomass are abundant in nature. Conversion of these two building blocks into fuels or value-added chemicals by electrochemical methods is essential for alleviating the energy crisis and reducing environmental pollution, and achieving carbon neutrality. In the past few decades, much effort has been devoted to this field, but most of this focuses on the design of catalysts and improvement of the performances, and only few research thrusts focus on new reactions or the mechanism of these reactions. Herein, we develop a series of new reactions and investigate the mechanisms of these reactions by using in-situ spectroscopy, the main results are shown as follows: 1) Furfural reduction reactions were conducted by using an electrochemical roughed Cu foil as the catalyst, and furfural alcohol (FA, Faradaic efficiency, FE: 43.0%) and 2-methylfuran (MF, FE: 57.5%) were obtained after electrolysis under -0.43V (vs. reversible hydrogen electrode, RHE). The effects of different facets on the selectivity were investigated, and Cu (110) is preferential to produce FA, while defects are the active sites for the formation of MF. Operando Raman spectrum showed that the production of FA and MF share the same intermediate at the initial stage, with different active sites leading to the pathway differential on the intermediate of the following steps and generating different products. 2) C-N bond products (acetamide and formamide) were obtained by CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR) with the combination of NH3 reactants and commercial Cu or CuO nanoparticle (NPs) electrocatalysts. The maximum FE of these two products is ~ 10% in total. With optimization, we found a higher pH, thicker catalyst layer, and larger size of cations are beneficial to the production of acetamide. This can be attributed to the higher production of C2 intermediate and further leads to a higher FE of acetamide. In-situ IR showed that the formation of formamide and formate share the same intermediate, and the production of acetamide and acetate undergoes a similar reaction pathway. The mechanism can help to design the new next generation catalyst with a higher efficiency, which is beneficial to the future application of this reaction in chemical industry. Nitrate and nitrite are used instead of ammonia as nitrogen sources to produce C-N bond compounds, which suggests that this reaction provides a new possibility for organic synthesis. In all, this reaction expands the scope of the CO2RR application, and is also good for the development of organic synthesis. 3) Hydroxymethanesulfonate (HMS), sulfoacetate (SA) and methanesulfonate (C-S bond products, FE is 6% in total) were obtained by coupling CO2RR with the addition of sulfite (SO32-), and Cu2O NPs which synthesized by the wet chemistry method were used as electrocatalysts. Among these three C-S bond compounds, HMS is the main product, FE can reach 6% maximum. In-situ XRD showed that Cu0 is the active species for C-S coupling process. Operando Raman and DFT calculation further showed that *CHOH is the key intermediate in the C-S bond formation, and the coupling between *CHOH and SO32- is the rate-determining step. The discovery of reaction intermediates opens up the possibility of designing highly efficient catalysts, which can promote the application of this reaction in real industries. Also, this reaction provides a new possibility to synthesize C-S bond products, which have the potential to partially replace traditional organic synthetic routes with greener and more sustainable procedures.