Thousands of animal experiments have demonstrated that androgenic hormones, such as testosterone, during the prenatal and early postnatal periods, masculinise and defeminise various neural and behavioural characteristics that differ by sex. Can these findings from animal experiments be generalised to human behaviour? Can early androgen exposure shape subsequent gender-related disorders in humans? Chapter 1 (Introduction) provides an overview of the literature. Chapter 2 (Kung et al., 2016a) is the first study to demonstrate that testosterone concentrations in saliva samples collected during the early postnatal testosterone surge at 1 to 3 months of age can negatively predict subsequent expressive vocabulary size (how many words a child can say) during toddlerhood. Notably, males typically have a smaller expressive vocabulary than do females during toddlerhood and a small expressive vocabulary is predictive of subsequent language difficulties, such as dyslexia and stuttering, which are more common in boys. Chapters 3 (Kung et al., 2016b) and 4 (Kung et al., 2016c) evaluate a popular theory of autism, the extreme male brain theory, which argues that heighted androgen exposure during early development causes the male preponderance in autism. To test the hypothesised relationship, Chapters 3 and 4 use different measures and study populations, including testosterone concentrations in amniotic fluid samples obtained prenatally and saliva samples obtained during the early postnatal testosterone surge in typically developing children, as well as examining the adjustment in children exposed to unusually high levels of androgens prenatally due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a rare clinical condition occurring in approximately 1 in 18,000 births. Findings from these two chapters converge to show that any relationship between early androgen exposure and subsequent development of autistic traits is small, non-existent, or unreliable, providing a much-needed clarification of the role of early androgen exposure in the aetiology of autism. Using data from a general population study, Chapter 5 (Kung et al., 2018a) is the first study to show that male-typical play behaviour in early childhood, a trait that has been linked to increased early androgen exposure in previous research, can positively predict adolescent physical aggression, which is typically higher in males than in females. This positive association between play and aggression supports potential influences of early androgen exposure, as well as socio-cognitive influences involved in gender development. Chapter 6 (Kung et al., 2018b) is the first study to compare emotional and behavioural adjustment in children with CAH, their unaffected siblings, and children in the general population. Findings from this chapter suggest that although within the families with a child with CAH there are generally no differences in emotional or behavioural problems between boys or girls with CAH and their unaffected same-sex siblings, both girls with CAH and their unaffected sisters are at risk of developing behavioural problems when compared with girls in the general population. Familial influences and social stigma may contribute to this gender-specific pattern of behavioural adjustment. Finally, Chapter 7 (Discussion) integrates the findings and previous research and provides directions for further research. Chapter References Chapter 2 Kung, K. T. F., Browne, W. V., Constantinescu, M., Noorderhaven, R. M., and Hines, M. (2016). Early Postnatal Testosterone Predicts Sex-Related Differences in Early Expressive Vocabulary. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 68, 111-116. Chapter 3 Kung, K. T. F., Constantinescu, M., Browne W. V., Noorderhaven, R. M., and Hines, M. (2016). No Relationship Between Early Postnatal Testosterone and Autistic Traits in 18 to 30-Month-Old Children. Molecular Autism, 7:15. Chapter 4 Kung, K. T. F., Spencer, D., Pasterski, V., Neufeld, S., Glover, V., O'Connor, T. G., Hindmarsh, P. C., Hughes, I. A., Acerini, C. L., and Hines, M. (2016). No Relationship Between Prenatal Androgen Exposure and Autistic Traits: Convergent Evidence from Studies of Children with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and of Amniotic Testosterone Concentrations in Typically-Developing Children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57, 1455-1462. Chapter 5 Kung, K. T. F., Li, G., Golding, J., and Hines, M. (2018). Preschool Gender-Typed Play Behavior at Age 3.5 Years Predicts Physical Aggression at Age 13 Years. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 905-914. Chapter 6 Kung, K. T. F., Spencer, D., Pasterski, V., Hindmarsh, P. C., Neufeld, S. A. S., Hughes, I. A., Acerini, C. L., and Hines, M. (2018). Emotional and Behavioral Adjustment in 4- to 11-Year-Old Boys and Girls with Classic Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia and Unaffected Siblings. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 97, 104-110.

<p>This study have two purposes, one is to examine the ideological consistency between Sida’s gender policy and the gender policy of an implemented project, and the other purpose consists of an attempt to identify a relation between the implementation of Sida’s/LAMP’s policies and actual changes on gender equality in the partnering country. Three research questions were formulated around the topics of women’s situation in Tanzania; the ideological origin of Sida’s gender policy and the reflection of these in the LAMP policy; and the consequences of an implementation in terms of equality between men and women in Babati District, Tanzania. The analysis is carried out with the help of different theoretical perspectives on women and gender in development, perspectives that have been selected on the basis that they have been influential and dominating in the contemporary planning and policy making of development agencies. The method used was a functional idea analysis and a field study where semi-structured interviews were conducted. The conclusion regarding the ideological consistency is that a comparison between the policies of Sida and LAMP shows patterns of great ideological resemblance, and that both have a somewhat stronger connection to the GAD approach. The conclusion regarding actual changes on gender equality reveals that an integration of gender aspects into the LAMP programme has had several consequences for women. The programme has helped to reduce women’s work load, increased their chances of income, and promoted women’s participation in decision-making on different levels. These are all aspects that may challenge the traditional order of women’s relationship to men and the subordination of women.</p>

This study have two purposes, one is to examine the ideological consistency between Sida’s gender policy and the gender policy of an implemented project, and the other purpose consists of an attempt to identify a relation between the implementation of Sida’s/LAMP’s policies and actual changes on gender equality in the partnering country. Three research questions were formulated around the topics of women’s situation in Tanzania; the ideological origin of Sida’s gender policy and the reflection of these in the LAMP policy; and the consequences of an implementation in terms of equality between men and women in Babati District, Tanzania. The analysis is carried out with the help of different theoretical perspectives on women and gender in development, perspectives that have been selected on the basis that they have been influential and dominating in the contemporary planning and policy making of development agencies. The method used was a functional idea analysis and a field study where semi-structured interviews were conducted. The conclusion regarding the ideological consistency is that a comparison between the policies of Sida and LAMP shows patterns of great ideological resemblance, and that both have a somewhat stronger connection to the GAD approach. The conclusion regarding actual changes on gender equality reveals that an integration of gender aspects into the LAMP programme has had several consequences for women. The programme has helped to reduce women’s work load, increased their chances of income, and promoted women’s participation in decision-making on different levels. These are all aspects that may challenge the traditional order of women’s relationship to men and the subordination of women.

This thesis aims to shed light on issues related to women’s rights to access and benefit from land in matrilineal communities in rural, northern Mozambique. It portrays the environment in which organisations working with implementation of land rights operate as well as proposes conclusions on the core obstacles to their work. A qualitative study was conducted and forms the basis of the study and is complemented with previous research on this topic. Women in rural, matrilineal communities in northern Mozambique are not equal with their male counterparts and they hold a lower social position despite the alleged matrilineal structure. However, they appear to be less marginalised than women in southern, patrilineal Mozambique, which suggests that the matrilineal structure does have a positive effect on the lives of the rural women. Furthermore, this study shows that the obstacles when implementing women’s land rights can be summarised as: (i) strong patriarchal attitudes, (ii) an insufficient level of education that excludes women from decision-making and (iii) a too narrow understanding of the gender-power relations.

The scholarly field of Gender and Development is riddled with diverging perceptions of the actual value and meaning of the term Gender and the development strategy of promoting gender equality – Gender Mainstreaming. Taking the social constructivist perspective of discourse analysis, this thesis explores the ways in which different problem representations of gender inequality are produced and reinforced within certain policy domains in the gender mainstreaming approach of the Rwandan government. The aim of this is to contribute to the scholarly field by exploring key areas not given a great deal of attention in previous research. Using the so-called ’WPR-method’ of policy analysis, developed by Carol Bacchi, a number of strategically selected policies representing different policy domains have been analyzed through four guiding analytical questions. Some main findings of the study indicates that while there are different specified problematizations of gender inequality in the domains, there is some overarching overlap in how the concept is understood to specifically concern women’s lack of agency, and how it is represented as a means to achieve the government’s targeted goals for socio-economic development.

Climate change is today an urgent threat, posing grave danger and requiring immediate attention. In order to adapt to the changes, policies, plans, and programmes have been created all over the world, such as the National Adaptation Plans (NAPs). Several authors and organisations have advocated for the importance of integrating a gender perspective into such climate change documents (Skinner, 2011; Bee, Biermann, and Tschakert, 2013; Lau et al., 2021). Nevertheless, at the time of writing, research is missing on NAPs in regard to gender. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to fill this gap through an analysis of the NAPs with a focus on gender. The sample is 12 countries, all from Sub-Saharan Africa because of the area’s high relevance regarding climate change. The objective of the thesis is to analyse the content of the selected NAPs regarding the integration of gender considerations. Using the theoretical framework of Gender and Development (GAD), the thesis aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of how the chosen NAPs address gender-related concerns. The methodology is a qualitative abductive desk study through qualitative content analysis. The findings suggest that gender considerations are not very well integrated into the NAPs and that women are primarily framed as vulnerable and very rarely as having key capacities or being agents of change. Additionally, from the perspective of GAD, several shortcomings are identified.

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In The Gambia, financial sustainability and poverty alleviation have been largely based on the assumption that analysis of macro level growth will bridge the gap between the formal and informal sectors; alleviate poverty and exclusion, ignoring other important factors such as political, social, cultural and religious issues. The government, microfinance outlets and international development agencies have implemented many measures to bring the masses into the formal economy to no avail. This dissertation explores Reliance Financial Service and the role of the Osusus in poverty alleviation, and how the Osusus are the edifice of microfinance and economic sustainability in The Gambia. Firstly, Osusus are small microfinance groups where participants receive substantial amounts of money to meet planned heavy expenditure commitments. To put things into perspective, Osusu is one of the oldest community based microfinance institutions in The Gambia, it has mostly resisted formalization. It is a social and financial system, where members contribute a set sum of money each week or month that is then allocated to one member. This has given some women a degree of independence and solidarity. Secondly, despite women being the largest segment of the Gambian population, disparities in gender roles, illiteracy, high unemployment and the lack of mainstreaming the interest and needs of women in national policy and the system tends to leave many women economically disadvantaged. Hence, this dissertation found that the provision of microfinance services in the form of micro-credit, insurance and micro-savings could be a great sustainability tool to create equity, uplift the economic and social status of women in society. Also, women could use these services towards productive consumption such as feeding their families, sending their children to school, affording healthcare and engaging in productive economic activities to increase their income. Empirically, it examines the microfinance outlook in The Gambia, its impacts on socio-economics ramifications on the country. It also examines the role of microfinance, contextually Reliance Financial Services Kafoo scheme, as a viable alternative poverty-alleviation avenue. / Ph. D.

Text in English / This research examines the applicability of the Kindernothilfe self-help group approach among the Ngäbe indigenous people in Panama from the perspectives of complex system theory and development as empowerment. It is based on an extensive literature review and an empirical qualitative study with focus group discussions and expert interviews following the grounded theory method. The dissertation displays the multiple dimensions that have reverberated to poverty and to the failure of development and most group approaches in the Ngäbe region. Nevertheless, it indicates that a culturally fitting self-help group concept could become a promising approach to empowering the Ngäbe people. Some crucial adaptations, however, are necessary. The most significant change regards the suggestion to work with mixed-sex ‘family groups’ that combine peer group meetings and joint gatherings. It represents the most suitable approach both from the perspective of the Ngäbe people and from the suitable approach both from the perspective of the Ngäbe people and from the viewpoint of gender mainstreaming and complexity. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)