The purpose of the present study was to examine perceptions of workplace incivility as a function of observers’ gender, observers’ gender-related attitudes, and the gender of the instigator and target of the mistreatment. The study included data from 102 (65% female, 90% white) participants from various occupations and backgrounds across the United States. Participants completed a web-based survey that consisted of scenarios of uncivil interactions, gender-attitudes, and various demographic information. Results suggest that observers’ gender and gender-related attitudes are important factors in how they perceive workplace incivility. Results also suggest that the gender of those involved in uncivil interactions is less influential. vii

In the 21st century, the division of housework remains gendered, with women on average still spending more time doing chores than their male partners. While research has studied why this phenomenon is so persistent, few studies have yet been able to assess the effect of gender ideology and socio-economic resources at the same time, usually due to data restrictions. We use data from the pairfam, a new and innovative German panel study, in order to test the effect of absolute and relative resources as well as his and her gender ideology on the division of housework. We employ a life course perspective and analyze trajectories of couples' housework division over time, using multi-level random effects growth curve models. We find that an egalitarian gender ideology of both him and her significantly predicts more egalitarian division-trajectories, while neither absolute nor relative resources appear to have an effect on the division of housework over time. Furthermore, our results expand the literature by investigating how these processes differ among childless couples and couples who experience the first birth.

In this thesis, I examine the relationships between changes in the structure of Australian families, trends in gender attitudes and trends in the housework hours of men and women in couple families. I examine how changing patterns of family formation and labour force participation are affecting patterns of time allocated to housework. Women’s responsibility for housework affects their ability to compete on equal terms with men in the labour market. Using data collected by three national surveys conducted in 1986, 1993 and 2005 I examine whether there is any evidence of convergence in the type of housework that men and women do (task convergence) and in the amount of time men and women spend doing housework (time convergence). I am primarily interested in whether Australian men are spending more time doing core housework tasks, namely cooking, cleaning and laundry. Tracking change over time in the US and the UK, researchers have found that there has been an increase in the amount of time men spent doing core housework tasks, however, there has been no evidence of a similar trend here in Australia. I review the key theoretical perspectives underpinning research into the gender division of labour: time availability, exchange of economic resources, gender and socialisation, before employing measures of the first three of these perspectives to examine change over time in the housework hours of men and women. The data analysed for this study do not include adequate measures of socialisation, therefore, I do not examine the association between socialisation and housework hours. Although previous researchers have examined the division of domestic labour within couple families, I focus on within gender comparisons examining the housework hours of men and women in various family types. By examining the absolute housework hours rather than the relative housework hours of men and women, I can determine whether men and women are spending a similar proportion of their housework hours doing particular tasks and whether the amount of time men and women spend doing particular tasks has become more similar. The division of housework into female tasks and male tasks is a major barrier to a more equal division of labour. Tasks traditionally regarded as female tasks- meal preparation, doing the dishes, cleaning the house, doing the laundry and shopping for groceries- account for the bulk of household labour and need to be completed on a regular, sometimes daily, basis. On the other hand, tasks traditionally regarded as male tasks- taking out the garbage, mowing the lawn, gardening and home repairs and maintenance- are more discretionary and can be completed on a more flexible schedule. Unless the division of tasks into male tasks and female tasks becomes less rigid, women will continue to spend more time doing housework than men. Overall, I find evidence of convergence in both housework tasks and housework hours. In 2005, men spent a larger proportion and women spent a smaller proportion of their housework time doing the core housework tasks compared to their counterparts in 1986. There is also evidence that the amount of time men spent doing housework increased and the amount of time women spent doing housework decreased. Men spent more time doing both female and male housework tasks and women spent less time doing female housework tasks and more time doing male housework tasks. These findings suggest that housework tasks have become more gender neutral. I also find evidence of a general trend towards a more equal division of labour with men in couple families increasing their housework hours by one and a half hours per week regardless of the employment status of their female partners and women in couple families spending less time doing housework regardless of their own employment status.

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Magister Artium - MA (Psychology) / Aggressive behaviour is prevalent in the South African context. This is evident in the high rates of interpersonal violence including rape, intimate partner violence and homicide. Young adults appear to be both the main perpetrators and victims of aggressive behaviour. Normative beliefs about aggression have been identified as a central factor underlying aggressive behaviour. Normative beliefs refer to an individual's cognitions about the acceptability of specific behaviours and serve to regulate actions. Despite the identified salience of normative beliefs in influencing aggressive behaviour, limited research has been conducted within South Africa on this topic. This study thus investigated normative beliefs about aggression held by young adults attending university. The study also aims to investigate whether prior exposure to trauma, self-esteem and demographic factors (e.g. age, gender and family size) predicted normative beliefs about aggression. Results indicated that exposure to traumatic events, as well as state self-esteem significantly predicted normative beliefs about aggression. Gender differences were evident in various subscales. Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained by the Senate Higher Degrees Committee of the University of the Western Cape, as well as the University of the Western Cape registrar.

Work-family conflict refers to the stress and tension which arise when demands from work and family are competing and incompatible. The aim of this study was to examine the experience of work-family conflict among men and women in Sweden and Germany, and whether there was an association between work-family conflict and self-rated health. Special attention was paid to the directions of the conflict: work to family (WIF) and family to work (FIW). Moreover, the importance of gender attitudes and family policy was examined. By using cross-sectional data from the European Social Survey, the associations were analysed using regression analysis. The results showed that men in Germany experience the highest levels of work-family conflict and women in Germany the lowest. Having egalitarian gender attitudes was associated to slightly lower conflict among men only. Furthermore, high levels of work-family conflict were related to poorer self-rated health. Gender attitudes did not play a significant role in moderating this association. Altogether, the study demonstrated the importance of gender attitudes and family policy for individuals’ possibility to reconcile work and family. Hence, by facilitating for men and women to successfully combine the two domains, the risk of negative health consequences from work-family conflict may be reduced.

abstract: The outcomes of parental divorce on offspring has been extensively examined in previous research. How parental divorce predicts gender attitudes and behaviors in offspring, however, is less studied. More specifically, research suggesting when the divorce occurs on young adult offspring attitudes and behaviors has not be reviewed to my knowledge in previous literature. Several instruments were used in the current paper to address how gender-typed attitudes and behaviors are predicted by parental divorce occurring between the age groups of birth-6, 7-12, or 13 and older in relation to individuals from intact families. Participants were 202 individuals, where 75 experienced a parental divorce or separation sometime in their life. Gender attitudes were assessed through the Pacific Attitudes Toward Gender Scale, Attitudes Toward Divorce Scale, Attitudes Toward Marriage Scale, and a scale created for this study on dating expectations. Gender behavior was assessed through scales created for this study: current occupation or major, number of romantic relationships, number of friends with benefits, number of one night stands, safe sex use, and future plans on marrying or having children. The Personal Attributes Questionnaire was also used to determine participants’ self-report of their masculinity or femininity. The results suggest parental divorce occurring between 7 and 12 years predicted more egalitarian gender attitudes compared to other groups. Gender attitudes also partially mediated the relationship between the timing of divorce and gender behavior in an exploratory analysis, although this was only significant for men. Finally, it was found that men whose parents divorced tend to report less safe sex, whereas women from divorced families tend to report more one night stand relationships than those from intact families. The data were partially supported by previous research of timing, where those whose parents divorced tend to show more egalitarian gender attitudes and behaviors. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2018

While there is a significant body of research on the topic of gender identity and gender attitudes, the existing literature contains a number of competing theories and leaves several gaps open for exploration. Namely, there is a lack of research on adult subjects, a lack of research into the benefits of using implicit measures of gender attitudes, and more room for exploration of the potentially complex interactions between gender identity variables, gender attitudes, and adjustment. This study investigated the relationships between a number of variables that have been suggested to make up a multidimensional model of gender identity, as well as an implicit measure of gender attitudes, an explicit stereotype endorsement measure, and a measure of well-being. The study took place online and participation was open to any U.S. resident over the age of 18. The expected relationships between gender identity and gender attitude variables were not found, but a number of intriguing correlations in the data are discussed.

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<p>This thesis contains four different studies on the dynamics of gender in households and workplaces. The relationship between family life and work life is in focus, particularly in the paper on labour market outcomes after divorce.</p><p>In the introductory chapter, the Swedish context is briefly described. The description focuses on gender differences in the labour market and in the home. Theories concerning the division of work in the household are discussed, as are two theories on labour market discrimination, viz. taste discrimination and statistical discrimination. The theory part is concluded with a discussion of social closure processes and gendered organizational structures.</p><p><i>The Reproduction of Gender. Housework and Attitudes Towards Gender Equality in the Home Among Swedish Boys and Girls.</i> The housework boys and girls age 10 to 18 do, and their attitudes towards gender equality in the home are studied. One aim is to see whether the work children do is gendered and if so, whether they follow their parents’, often gendered, pattern in housework. A second aim is to see whether parents’ division of work is related to the children’s attitude towards gender equality in the home. The data used are taken from the Swedish Child Level of Living Survey (Child-LNU) 2000. Results indicate that girls and boys in two-parent families are more prone to engage in gender-atypical work the more their parent of the same sex engages in this kind of work. The fact that girls still do more housework than boys indicates that housework is gendered work also among children. No relation between parents’ division of work and the child’s attitude towards gender equality in the home was found. </p><p><i>Dependence within Families and the Household Division of Labor – A Comparison between Sweden and the United States.</i> This paper assesses the relative explanatory value of the resource-bargaining perspective and the doing-gender approach in analysing the division of housework in the United States and Sweden from the mid-1970s to 2000. Data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey (LNU) and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) were used. Overall results indicate that housework is truly gendered work in both countries during the entire period. Even so, the results also indicate that gender deviance neutralization is more pronounced in the United States than in Sweden. Unlike Swedish women, American women seem to increase their time spent in housework when their husbands are to some extent economically dependent on them, as if to neutralize the presumed gender deviance.</p><p><i>Divorce and Labour Market Outcomes. Do Women Suffer or Gain?</i> In this paper, the interconnected nature of work and family is studied by looking at labour market outcomes after divorce. The data used are retrospective work and family histories collected in LNU 1991. A hazard regression model with competing risks reveals that women’s chances of improving their occupational prestige appear to be better after divorce compared to before. Increased working hours and perhaps also increased energy invested in the job may pay off in better occupational opportunities. Worth noting, however, is that the outcome among women with a less firm labour market attachment is more often to a job of lower prestige than one of higher prestige. Hence, the labour market outcome for women after divorce is to some extent conditioned by their labour market attachment at the time of divorce. Men, on the other hand, in most cases seem to suffer occupationally from divorce. For separated men the risk of negative changes in occupational prestige is greater than for cohabiting men.</p><p><i>Formal On-the-job Training. A Gender-Typed Experience and Wage- Related Advantage?</i> Formal on-the-job training (FOJT) can have a positive impact on wages and on promotion opportunities. According to theory and earlier research, a two-step model of gender inequality in FOJT is predicted: First, women are less likely than men to take part in FOJT and, second, once women do get the more remunerative training, they are not rewarded for their new skills to the same extent as men are. Pooled cross-sectional data from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions (ULF) in the mid-nineties were used. Results show that women are significantly less likely than men to take part in FOJT. Among those who do receive training, women are more likely to take part in industry-specific training, whereas men are more likely to participate in general training and training that increases promotion opportunities. The two latter forms of training significantly raise a man’s annual earnings but not a woman’s. Hence, the theoretical model is supported and it is argued that this gender inequality is partly due to employers’ discriminatory practices.</p>