The purpose of this essay is to explore a common situation of special education in Taiwan. Paraprofessionals, mostly consist of women, are asked to afford most care works for disabled children under the institution of special education. As men join as paraprofessionals to take care responsibilities, duties may be distributed by gender categorization. Moreover, care routines for children in the practice of daily life are divided into educational and caring matters which also much influence the partnerships between teachers and paraprofessionals. Based on the Institutional Ethnography, that emphasize through problematic daily experiences of those actors, to find how the institution to govern their relationships in the hidden domination, author has adopted in-depth interview of sixteen paraprofessionals and five teachers, moreover, engaged in participant observations to analyze where the caring practice reoccur and how much the influence of power of the institution to represent the relationships differentiated between these actors according to their gender and professional degree in the classroom. This study reveals, first, that women are shaped to be perfect care workers for disabled bodies, they also satisfy with mothering imagination through daily practice. Second, a few men join to be care workers only for a short period. To maintain traditional masculinity, caring experiences of men in the classroom are presented within stereotypical practice associated with gender stereotypes. At the same time, gender division of work can well keep men from the accusation of sex violation. Third, professionalism is the important factor influencing the interactions and negotiations between those actors who engaged in the special education institution. Furthermore, care works in this regard are distinguished into a dichotomy of body/ mind care responsibilities, and it may reshape the hierarchy inside the women.

Denna avhandling utgör en studie av företagsledares arbetsmetodik och möjligheterna att organisera arbetet inom en företagsledning. I boken presenteras ett antal nya aspekter på såväl effektiviteten i företagsledande arbete som möjligheterna för företagsledare att initiera och påverka företagsutvecklande processer. Boken bygger på en studie av arbetet i företagsledningen inom Facit AB, åren 1984 till 1989. Åren 1987, 1988 och 1989 följdes ledningsarbetet i detalj genom regelbundna djupintervjuer med hela företagsledningen. Under tiden för studien leddes företaget av Ulf Bergenudd, idag VD för Svenska Pressbyrån, och med tidigare VD-uppdrag inom bland annat Wang Scandinavia och Datema bakom sig. Studiens slutsatser faller inom ramen för tre huvudsakliga teman: I företagsteori dominerar föreställning att ansvar inte bara kan utan bör definieras och fördelas i så hög grad som möjligt. Denna föreställning är begränsat relevant och i viss utsträckning direkt effektivitetshämmande när det gäller företagsledande arbete. I företagsteori dominerar föreställningen att mål och strategier arbetas fram i särskilda och avgränsbara aktiviteter. Föreställningen baseras på vilseledande förenklingar av förutsättningarna för företagsledande arbete. I stället kan mål och strategier betraktas som det successiva resultatet av ständigt pågående inlärningsprocesser vilka har sina egna och specifika villkor för att vara effektiva. Företagsledare påverkar i lika hög grad händelseutvecklingen i ett företag genom att successivt definiera och organisera ledningens arbete – alltså genom att implementera aktiviteter – som genom att ta ställning i olika sakfrågor eller till hur olika problemkomplex skall hanteras, dvs genom beslutsfattande. / <p>Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 1993</p>

This paper analyses how labor, family and labor-family relationships have changed recently in Peru and analyses also their effects on the household division of work in families where both parents perceive salaries. Our findings focus on: a) the roles of both parents (male and female) as household providers and their views on parenting, b) the scheduling of family activities and labor flexibility, c) the tensions in labor-family relationships d) the social practices related to domestic activities and childcare and e) the struggles for power in daily interactions related to the division of labor. / Hemos investigado cómo los cambios por los que han pasado en los últimos tiempos el trabajo, la familia y la relación trabajo-familia han afectado a su vez a la relación y la división entre el trabajo remunerado y el trabajo familiar o doméstico de cuidados, sobre todo en familias donde tanto el varón como la mujer tienen trabajos remunerados. Nuestros principales hallazgos y reflexiones están relacio- nados con: (i) los roles del varón y la mujer: en la proveeduría de recursos, la maternidad y paternidad;(ii) la organización del tiempo en las familias y las condiciones de flexibilidad en los trabajos; (iii) las tensiones en la relación trabajo-familia / (iv) las prácticas en las tareas domésticas y de cuidados, y (v) las confrontaciones de poder en la interacción cotidiana para la realización de la división del trabajo.

Esta pesquisa da tese de doutorado tratou de compreender como a mulher brasileira e boliviana contribui para a (re)produção do espaço transfronteiriço das cidades-gêmeas de Corumbá, no Brasil, e das cidades de Puerto Quijarro e Puerto Suarez, na Bolívia. A abordagem geográfica sobre o trabalho produtivo e reprodutivo da mulher teve como pressuposto a produção do espaço, uma vez que a divisão social do trabalho implica em divisão sexual do trabalho, ou seja, o trabalho feminino é uma questão de análise do espaço (ROSSINI, 1988). Observou-se que a pesquisa de Gênero na Geografia tem como propósito entender a organização desse espaço transfronteiriço a partir do uso da força de trabalho feminino no comércio, onde as mulheres organizam a atividade concomitante a reprodução social. O princípio norteador do método da pesquisa foi a formação sócioespacial das cidades-gêmeas entre Brasil e Bolívia e revelou os vários períodos de ocupação desse espaço fronteiriço. Duas frentes de ocupação se destacaram no estudo, pois potencializaram as relações transfronteiriças ao longo das décadas de 1990 e 2000: a circulação de produtos industrializados provenientes de várias fronteiras, como a brasileira, a chilena, a peruana e a argentina; e a expansão do comércio popular, especialmente de confecção, para as fronteiras bolivianas com uso da força de trabalho feminina. Sobretudo, no que se refere à base teórica metodológica sobre o trabalho feminino na área de fronteira, a investigação orientou-se pelas análises socioeconômica, espacial e pelo conceito da divisão sexual do trabalho. A pesquisa evidenciou a importância das famílias, empresas e agentes governamentais consolidados nos territórios de fronteira, pois funcionam como organismos sociais do Estado ratzeliano. Adotou-se a pesquisa qualitativa por meio de observações, imagens fotográficas, reportagens e noticiários da imprensa local, bem como, de entrevistas semi-estruturadas e informais para a coleta de dados nas cidades-gêmeas de fronteira. Em termos gerais, constatou-se que as mulheres que trabalham no comércio do circuito inferior das cidades-gêmeas entre Brasil e Bolívia foram as responsáveis pela pulverização das relações transfronteiriças, mediante as formas de organização dos negócios e do trabalho e, principalmente, pelo estreitamento dos laços familiares. Portanto, revelou-se que a atividade comercial operacionalizada pela mulher faz dela importante articuladora dos arranjos territoriais da fronteira. / This doctoral dissertation deals with the comprehension of how the Brazilian and Bolivian woman contributes to the reproduction of the transboundary space from Corumba\'s twin cities, in Brazil, and in Bolivian cities Puerto Quijaro and Puerto Suarez. The geographic approach about the productive and reproductive work of woman supposes the production of space, once that the social division of work implies in sexual division of work, so the female labour is a matter of analysis of space (ROSSINI, 1988). The gender research in Geography has as purpose to understand the spatial organization of this cross-border space, from the use of the womens workforce in the trade, where the women organize the activity concomitantly with the social reproduction. The research method had as mainspring principle the socio-spatial of the twin-cities border between Brazil and Bolivia and revealed the several periods of occupation of this border space. Two occupancy fronts highlighted in the study, which potentiate the cross-border relationship, over the 1990s and 2000s: the circulation of industrialized products from several borders, as the Brazilian, Chilean, Peruvian, Argentinian; and the popular expansion trade, especially of clothing manufacture, for the Bolivian borders with the use of womens work. Especially as regards to the methodologic theoretical base about the womens work in the border area, the investigation was oriented by the socioeconomic analysis, spatial and by the concept of sexual division of work. The research evidenced the importance of the families, business and governmental agents consolidated in the border territory, since they work as social organisms of ratzelian State. The qualitative research were adopted by means of observations, photograph images, news and local press news, as well the semi structured and informal interviews for the data collection in the twin-cities border. Generally speaking, it was found that the women working in the trade of the low circuits from twin-cities between Brazil and Bolivia, were the responsible for the spraying of the cross-borders relationships, by means of organization modes from the business, work and manly by the narrowing of the family bond. Therefore, it was revealed that the business activity operationalized by woman makes her an important articulator of the border territorial arrangements.

Este trabalho objetiva a realização de um estudo sobre a organização social indígena dos Pakaanóva do município de Guajará-Mirim, estado de Rondônia. A abordagem temática do presente trabalho é a organização social indígena. Seu objeto de estudo é descrever o contexto e a variabilidade de novas configurações da sociedade indígena, ou seja, a nova base de organização social na tribo Pakaanóva. Como objetivos específicos, este estudo busca verificar a relação entre configurações recentes da socialização indígena atual e suas versões tradicionais e estabelecer comparações entre a organização social tradicional com o atual modelo indígena da tribo Pakaanóva. A população indígena apresenta vários modelos de organização, essa distinção está supostamente ligada aos processos geográficos, civilizatório e étnico. Conforme as literaturas indígenas, o líder maior que existe na tribo é o cacique, que coordena toda tribo e o pajé que é responsável por processos rituais e é o xamã existente na tribo. Organização indígena é a forma como o indígena organiza os seus trabalhos e divide a sua responsabilidade, isso faz parte da luta do cotidiano e da vida coletiva. A metodologia de pesquisa adotada foi a pesquisa bibliográfica, com enfoque nos povos indígenas e principalmente sobre a etnia Pakaanóva. As informações foram coletadas através de livros, revistas, artigos, dissertações e materiais disponibilizados na rede mundial de computadores. A conclusão apresentada neste trabalho revela que os indígenas Pakaanóva, apesar das adversidades ainda persistem e tentam conservar suas instituições sociais, econômicas, culturais e políticas, mesmo que parcialmente. / The goal of this paper is to carry out a study about the indigenous social organization of the Pakaanóva people in the municipality of Guajará-Mirim, state of Rondônia. The thematic approach of this paper is the indigenous social organization. Its object of study is to describe the context and the variability of the new configurations of the indigenous society, that is, the new base of social organization in the Pakaanóva tribe. As specific goals, this study seeks to verify the relation between recent configurations of current indigenous socialization and their traditional versions and establish comparisons between the traditional social organization and the current indigenous model of the Pakaanóva tribe. The indigenous population presents various models of organization, the distinction of which is supposedly connected to the geographical, civilization and ethnic processes. According to the indigenous literature, the greatest leader that exists in the tribe is the chief, who coordinates the whole tribe and the shaman who is responsible for the ritual processes and is the existing shaman in the tribe. Indigenous organization is the way in which the indigenous people organize their work and divide their responsibilities, being part of daily life and of collective life. The methodology of research adopted was bibliographic, with emphasis on the indigenous peoples, specifically the Pakaanóva ethnic group. The information was collected through books, journals, articles, dissertations and materials available on the world network of computers. The conclusion presented in this paper reveals that the Pakaanóva indigenous people, in spite of adversities, still persist and try to maintain their social, economic, cultural and political institutions, even though only partially.

This Diploma thesis has a closer look on the work and the terms in the ethics dimension. Clarify, that the work belongs to the most important life{\crq}s values and contains individual and as well social branch. Put important ideas in more precise terms. It looks up in the history of society evolution and elaborate the influence of division of labour in every progress phase. Outlines influence of the work on the advancement of the men{\crq}s morality and ethics rules in the society. It describes present society, changes in the world of labour and with help of secondary data analysis describes the value of labour in the Czech Republic. It presents the possibilities of future expansion regarding the work as phenomen wich did not yet depleeted its potential.

Esta pesquisa da tese de doutorado tratou de compreender como a mulher brasileira e boliviana contribui para a (re)produção do espaço transfronteiriço das cidades-gêmeas de Corumbá, no Brasil, e das cidades de Puerto Quijarro e Puerto Suarez, na Bolívia. A abordagem geográfica sobre o trabalho produtivo e reprodutivo da mulher teve como pressuposto a produção do espaço, uma vez que a divisão social do trabalho implica em divisão sexual do trabalho, ou seja, o trabalho feminino é uma questão de análise do espaço (ROSSINI, 1988). Observou-se que a pesquisa de Gênero na Geografia tem como propósito entender a organização desse espaço transfronteiriço a partir do uso da força de trabalho feminino no comércio, onde as mulheres organizam a atividade concomitante a reprodução social. O princípio norteador do método da pesquisa foi a formação sócioespacial das cidades-gêmeas entre Brasil e Bolívia e revelou os vários períodos de ocupação desse espaço fronteiriço. Duas frentes de ocupação se destacaram no estudo, pois potencializaram as relações transfronteiriças ao longo das décadas de 1990 e 2000: a circulação de produtos industrializados provenientes de várias fronteiras, como a brasileira, a chilena, a peruana e a argentina; e a expansão do comércio popular, especialmente de confecção, para as fronteiras bolivianas com uso da força de trabalho feminina. Sobretudo, no que se refere à base teórica metodológica sobre o trabalho feminino na área de fronteira, a investigação orientou-se pelas análises socioeconômica, espacial e pelo conceito da divisão sexual do trabalho. A pesquisa evidenciou a importância das famílias, empresas e agentes governamentais consolidados nos territórios de fronteira, pois funcionam como organismos sociais do Estado ratzeliano. Adotou-se a pesquisa qualitativa por meio de observações, imagens fotográficas, reportagens e noticiários da imprensa local, bem como, de entrevistas semi-estruturadas e informais para a coleta de dados nas cidades-gêmeas de fronteira. Em termos gerais, constatou-se que as mulheres que trabalham no comércio do circuito inferior das cidades-gêmeas entre Brasil e Bolívia foram as responsáveis pela pulverização das relações transfronteiriças, mediante as formas de organização dos negócios e do trabalho e, principalmente, pelo estreitamento dos laços familiares. Portanto, revelou-se que a atividade comercial operacionalizada pela mulher faz dela importante articuladora dos arranjos territoriais da fronteira. / This doctoral dissertation deals with the comprehension of how the Brazilian and Bolivian woman contributes to the reproduction of the transboundary space from Corumba\'s twin cities, in Brazil, and in Bolivian cities Puerto Quijaro and Puerto Suarez. The geographic approach about the productive and reproductive work of woman supposes the production of space, once that the social division of work implies in sexual division of work, so the female labour is a matter of analysis of space (ROSSINI, 1988). The gender research in Geography has as purpose to understand the spatial organization of this cross-border space, from the use of the womens workforce in the trade, where the women organize the activity concomitantly with the social reproduction. The research method had as mainspring principle the socio-spatial of the twin-cities border between Brazil and Bolivia and revealed the several periods of occupation of this border space. Two occupancy fronts highlighted in the study, which potentiate the cross-border relationship, over the 1990s and 2000s: the circulation of industrialized products from several borders, as the Brazilian, Chilean, Peruvian, Argentinian; and the popular expansion trade, especially of clothing manufacture, for the Bolivian borders with the use of womens work. Especially as regards to the methodologic theoretical base about the womens work in the border area, the investigation was oriented by the socioeconomic analysis, spatial and by the concept of sexual division of work. The research evidenced the importance of the families, business and governmental agents consolidated in the border territory, since they work as social organisms of ratzelian State. The qualitative research were adopted by means of observations, photograph images, news and local press news, as well the semi structured and informal interviews for the data collection in the twin-cities border. Generally speaking, it was found that the women working in the trade of the low circuits from twin-cities between Brazil and Bolivia, were the responsible for the spraying of the cross-borders relationships, by means of organization modes from the business, work and manly by the narrowing of the family bond. Therefore, it was revealed that the business activity operationalized by woman makes her an important articulator of the border territorial arrangements.

This dissertation is concerned with brewers and the practice of beer brewing in late medieval Stockholm. It considers the operational aspects of production and sale, the ways in which the practice was licensed and regulated by the city authorities, and the nature of the people who acted as brewers, in terms of their gender and social background. A key area of interest is the character of brewing as a regulated professional occupation within the city rather than as an unregulated domestic activity as was its character outside of the city borders. Particular attention is paid to the under-researched role played by brewing in the working lives of women. In order to analyse Stockholm’s brewing practices during the period 1460–1525, the study draws upon a range of source materials, such as city rolls, tax rolls, city ordinances, and court records. Evidence of women’s roles in the brewing trade is traced in the scarce amount of source material available and pieced together by using an investigative method. The main results show that strict local regulations divided the brewing trade into two branches, the production and the selling of beer, both in which women played a significant role. The brewing itself was female-dominated for several consecutive years. These women were the professionals of the trade, who were hired to brew batches of beer by the owners of brew houses or by persons who hired the brew houses for a small sum. Although the brewsters themselves did not take part in the legal sale of beer, other women had access to this part of the trade. They were however restricted to the domestic and local type of beer, while their male counterparts had access to imported and more valuable drinks. The difference in pay, to the brewer per finished brew or to the beer-seller per barrel, shows that profit was reserved to those who had the means to sell beer, rather than the local professionals who produced it.  Local regulations limited the access to brewing and the selling of beer within the city, where one group in particular was deemed an undesirable presence; the loose women. This implies an earlier connection between alcohol and decency, in Sweden having previously been researched mainly regarding its early-modern history, as these so-called loose women were considered to be morally inferior and were blamed for the moral and social problems associated with alcohol. Brewing and beer-selling appear to have been trades that were available to women, during a time in history when women were seriously restricted in terms of the professional occupations they were permitted to engage in, and the significance of brewing as a vital means of support for these precarious individuals has, arguably, not hitherto been fully appreciated.

<p>This thesis contains four different studies on the dynamics of gender in households and workplaces. The relationship between family life and work life is in focus, particularly in the paper on labour market outcomes after divorce.</p><p>In the introductory chapter, the Swedish context is briefly described. The description focuses on gender differences in the labour market and in the home. Theories concerning the division of work in the household are discussed, as are two theories on labour market discrimination, viz. taste discrimination and statistical discrimination. The theory part is concluded with a discussion of social closure processes and gendered organizational structures.</p><p><i>The Reproduction of Gender. Housework and Attitudes Towards Gender Equality in the Home Among Swedish Boys and Girls.</i> The housework boys and girls age 10 to 18 do, and their attitudes towards gender equality in the home are studied. One aim is to see whether the work children do is gendered and if so, whether they follow their parents’, often gendered, pattern in housework. A second aim is to see whether parents’ division of work is related to the children’s attitude towards gender equality in the home. The data used are taken from the Swedish Child Level of Living Survey (Child-LNU) 2000. Results indicate that girls and boys in two-parent families are more prone to engage in gender-atypical work the more their parent of the same sex engages in this kind of work. The fact that girls still do more housework than boys indicates that housework is gendered work also among children. No relation between parents’ division of work and the child’s attitude towards gender equality in the home was found. </p><p><i>Dependence within Families and the Household Division of Labor – A Comparison between Sweden and the United States.</i> This paper assesses the relative explanatory value of the resource-bargaining perspective and the doing-gender approach in analysing the division of housework in the United States and Sweden from the mid-1970s to 2000. Data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey (LNU) and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) were used. Overall results indicate that housework is truly gendered work in both countries during the entire period. Even so, the results also indicate that gender deviance neutralization is more pronounced in the United States than in Sweden. Unlike Swedish women, American women seem to increase their time spent in housework when their husbands are to some extent economically dependent on them, as if to neutralize the presumed gender deviance.</p><p><i>Divorce and Labour Market Outcomes. Do Women Suffer or Gain?</i> In this paper, the interconnected nature of work and family is studied by looking at labour market outcomes after divorce. The data used are retrospective work and family histories collected in LNU 1991. A hazard regression model with competing risks reveals that women’s chances of improving their occupational prestige appear to be better after divorce compared to before. Increased working hours and perhaps also increased energy invested in the job may pay off in better occupational opportunities. Worth noting, however, is that the outcome among women with a less firm labour market attachment is more often to a job of lower prestige than one of higher prestige. Hence, the labour market outcome for women after divorce is to some extent conditioned by their labour market attachment at the time of divorce. Men, on the other hand, in most cases seem to suffer occupationally from divorce. For separated men the risk of negative changes in occupational prestige is greater than for cohabiting men.</p><p><i>Formal On-the-job Training. A Gender-Typed Experience and Wage- Related Advantage?</i> Formal on-the-job training (FOJT) can have a positive impact on wages and on promotion opportunities. According to theory and earlier research, a two-step model of gender inequality in FOJT is predicted: First, women are less likely than men to take part in FOJT and, second, once women do get the more remunerative training, they are not rewarded for their new skills to the same extent as men are. Pooled cross-sectional data from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions (ULF) in the mid-nineties were used. Results show that women are significantly less likely than men to take part in FOJT. Among those who do receive training, women are more likely to take part in industry-specific training, whereas men are more likely to participate in general training and training that increases promotion opportunities. The two latter forms of training significantly raise a man’s annual earnings but not a woman’s. Hence, the theoretical model is supported and it is argued that this gender inequality is partly due to employers’ discriminatory practices.</p>

This thesis contains four different studies on the dynamics of gender in households and workplaces. The relationship between family life and work life is in focus, particularly in the paper on labour market outcomes after divorce. In the introductory chapter, the Swedish context is briefly described. The description focuses on gender differences in the labour market and in the home. Theories concerning the division of work in the household are discussed, as are two theories on labour market discrimination, viz. taste discrimination and statistical discrimination. The theory part is concluded with a discussion of social closure processes and gendered organizational structures. The Reproduction of Gender. Housework and Attitudes Towards Gender Equality in the Home Among Swedish Boys and Girls. The housework boys and girls age 10 to 18 do, and their attitudes towards gender equality in the home are studied. One aim is to see whether the work children do is gendered and if so, whether they follow their parents’, often gendered, pattern in housework. A second aim is to see whether parents’ division of work is related to the children’s attitude towards gender equality in the home. The data used are taken from the Swedish Child Level of Living Survey (Child-LNU) 2000. Results indicate that girls and boys in two-parent families are more prone to engage in gender-atypical work the more their parent of the same sex engages in this kind of work. The fact that girls still do more housework than boys indicates that housework is gendered work also among children. No relation between parents’ division of work and the child’s attitude towards gender equality in the home was found. Dependence within Families and the Household Division of Labor – A Comparison between Sweden and the United States. This paper assesses the relative explanatory value of the resource-bargaining perspective and the doing-gender approach in analysing the division of housework in the United States and Sweden from the mid-1970s to 2000. Data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey (LNU) and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) were used. Overall results indicate that housework is truly gendered work in both countries during the entire period. Even so, the results also indicate that gender deviance neutralization is more pronounced in the United States than in Sweden. Unlike Swedish women, American women seem to increase their time spent in housework when their husbands are to some extent economically dependent on them, as if to neutralize the presumed gender deviance. Divorce and Labour Market Outcomes. Do Women Suffer or Gain? In this paper, the interconnected nature of work and family is studied by looking at labour market outcomes after divorce. The data used are retrospective work and family histories collected in LNU 1991. A hazard regression model with competing risks reveals that women’s chances of improving their occupational prestige appear to be better after divorce compared to before. Increased working hours and perhaps also increased energy invested in the job may pay off in better occupational opportunities. Worth noting, however, is that the outcome among women with a less firm labour market attachment is more often to a job of lower prestige than one of higher prestige. Hence, the labour market outcome for women after divorce is to some extent conditioned by their labour market attachment at the time of divorce. Men, on the other hand, in most cases seem to suffer occupationally from divorce. For separated men the risk of negative changes in occupational prestige is greater than for cohabiting men. Formal On-the-job Training. A Gender-Typed Experience and Wage- Related Advantage? Formal on-the-job training (FOJT) can have a positive impact on wages and on promotion opportunities. According to theory and earlier research, a two-step model of gender inequality in FOJT is predicted: First, women are less likely than men to take part in FOJT and, second, once women do get the more remunerative training, they are not rewarded for their new skills to the same extent as men are. Pooled cross-sectional data from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions (ULF) in the mid-nineties were used. Results show that women are significantly less likely than men to take part in FOJT. Among those who do receive training, women are more likely to take part in industry-specific training, whereas men are more likely to participate in general training and training that increases promotion opportunities. The two latter forms of training significantly raise a man’s annual earnings but not a woman’s. Hence, the theoretical model is supported and it is argued that this gender inequality is partly due to employers’ discriminatory practices.