M. Tech. (Biotechnology, Department of Health Sciences), Vaal University of Technology / Amaranthus tricolor (A. tricolor) is a nutritious vegetable crop that is used as a subsistence and cash crop in the rural areas in Africa. Its yield and production is severely limited by abiotic stresses such as drought. Mutation technology, using gamma irradiation, was previously employed as a tool to create genetic variation in order to select for lines with improved drought-tolerance. During irradiation, 160 Gy (Gray) was selected as the optimal dosimetry that allowed subsequent seed germination. The resulting mutant lines were screened over several generations under field and greenhouse conditions and seven promising drought-tolerant lines were selected. Here we report on physiological and morphological studies of two of these Amaranthus mutant lines (#2 and #5) to confirm the enganced drought-tolerance. Plants were grown in the greenhouse in plastic pots containing germination mix with fertiliser. They were exposed to 21 days of well-watered condition, 19 days of drought-stress conditions and 7 days of re-watering. shoot height, leaf area, protein content and relative water content (RWC) of the fresh and dry material were determined colorimetrically under well-watered and drought-stress conditions, while anthocyanin was only measured during well-watered conditions. Shoot height, leaf area, number of leaves per plant and the protein content were significantly reduced under water-stress conditions. Under well-watered condition mutant #5 grew faster with the shoot length significantly higher than mutant #2 and the wild type. Even though drought adversely affected shoot lenght, mutant#5 still performed better than mutant #2 and the wild type under drought-stress conditions. While under both well-watered and drought-stress conditions, the wild type plants had bigger leaf area compared to the two mutant lines. After 16 days of drought-stress conditions, all the leaves of the wild type plants were dried out, as a result no wild type plants recovered after 8 days re-watering. Meanwhile, both mutant #2 and #5 plants recovered significantly after 8 days of re-watering. The wild type was tolerant compared to the two mutant lines. Protein content for mutant #2 plants was higher under both well-watered and drought-stress conditions but was not significantly different from mutant #5 plants compared to the wild type plants after 19 days of drought-stress conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity was examined in all the Amaranthus lines using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Nineteen arbitrary RAPD markers were used of which two detected polymorphisms (OPA) 07 and OPA 16).

A liberação comercial de plantas geneticamente modificadas (PGMs) é assunto controverso, devido ao desconhecimento quanto aos potenciais impactos ambientais e sócioeconômicos que pode suscitar a curto, médio e longo prazo. De modo a regular as deliberações sobre o uso de organismos geneticamente modificados (OGMs) mecanismos regulatórios que se propõem a prever tais impactos estão sendo criados em diversas nações, sendo a análise de risco (AR) o instrumento de estudo ambiental normalmente empregado nos processos decisórios. No entanto, há contestações sobre seu uso como única ferramenta de análise ambiental de PGMs, já que não possibilita a avaliação dos impactos cumulativos, indiretos, de longo prazo e dos interesses das nações delineados em suas políticas, planos e programas (PPPs). Um instrumento proposto por alguns autores passível de abarcar tais considerações é a Avaliação Ambiental Estratégica, que busca inserir a variável ambiental durante as fases de planejamento que resultam na elaboração de PPPs. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o sistema regulatório envolvendo a liberação em escala comercial de PGMs no Brasil e as potenciais contribuições da AAE para o processo decisório, contemplando os princípios de uma boa governaça ambiental nos processos decisórios. Para tanto, aplicou-se um questionário eletrônico a agentes sociais interessados pelo tema visando identificar suas visões sobre o assunto, analisou-se os procedimentos utilizados na deliberação sobre o algodão MON1445 resistente ao herbicida glifosato e, por fim, efetuou-se a avaliação dos instrumentos análise de risco, estudo de impacto ambiental (EIA) e AAE quanto à inserção da variável ambiental nas tomadas de decisão. Os resultados obtidos foram: com relação ao sistema regulatório, cujos pressupostos encontram-se na Lei de Biossegurança, evidenciou-se a falta de legitimidade nas tomadas de decisão, as quais são realizadas pela CTNBio, enquanto que a Constituição brasileira atribui aos órgãos ambientais a deliberação sobre atividades potencialmente poluidoras, dentre estas aquelas que envolvam OGMs; a deficiência dos mecanismos de participação social, pois as audiências públicas ocorrem mediante decisão da CTNBio; a falta de acesso às informações, devido a não implementação do Sistema de Informações sobre Biossegurança (SIB), além do descumprimento de diversas legislações, que configuram no desrespeito à justiça ambiental. Em razão destes fatores, conclui-se que o sistema regulatório brasileiro sobre PGMs não se baseia em uma boa governança ambiental. Quanto aos instrumentos de avaliação de impactos ambientais, a análise de risco, em função dos aspectos acima levantados, não se adequa para a avaliação prévia de PGMs, podendo ser utilizada como uma metodologia que subsidie o EIA ou a AAE. O EIA, por sua vez, não tem a atribuição de avaliar ações que envolvam territórios abrangentes, mas sim de atividades pontuais que se dão em etapas posteriores de planejamento. Já a AAE contribuiria para a tomada de decisões no tocante à liberação comercial de PGMs, em função de seus princípios de transparência, envolvimento social, planejamento ambiental, abrangência de extensos recortes territoriais, avaliação de impactos cumulativos e de longo prazo e monitoramento ambiental contínuo. Deste modo, recomendou-se a utilização da AAE no planejamento ambiental envolvendo liberações comerciais de PGMs no Brasil. / The commercial release of genetically modified crops (GMCs) is controversial, due to the lack of knowledge about the potential environmental and socio-economic impacts that can lead to short, medium and long term. In order to regulate the deliberations on the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), regulatory mechanisms that are proposed to predict such impacts are being created in many nations, with risk analysis (RA) being the instrument normally used in environmental studies for decision-making. However, there are some doubts about its use as the only tool of environmental analysis of PGMs, since it does not allow the assessment of cumulative, indirect and long-term impacts and the interests of the nation outlined in their policies, plans and programs (PPPs). An instrument proposed by some authors likely to embrace such considerations is the Strategic Environmental Assessment, which seeks to insert the environmental variable during the planning stages that result in the development of PPPs. This thesis aimed to evaluate the regulatory system involving the commercial release of GMCs in Brazil and the potential contribution of SEA to decisionmaking process, incorporating the principles of good governance. To this end, we applied an electronic questionnaire to some social actors to identify their views on the subject, reviewed the procedures used in the deliberation of the glyphosate-resistant cotton MON1445 and, finally, we performed the evaluation of risk analysis, environmental impact statement (EIS) and SEA as tools of environmental parameter insertion in decision-making. The results obtained were: with respect to the regulatory system, whose assumptions are in the Biosafety law, there was a lack of legitimacy in decision-making, which are held by CTNBio, while the brazilian Constitution assigns the decision on potentially polluting activitities (among which is those related to the GMOs) to the environmental agencies; the deficiency of the mechanisms of social participation, since decisions for public hearings are taking by CTNBio; lack of access to information due to non-implementation of the Information Biosafety System (IBS), and the disrespect of various laws, whith disregard for environmental justice. Because of these factors, the brazilian regulatory system on PGMs is not based on good environmental governance. With regard to instruments for environmental studies, risk analysis, according to the aspects mentioned above, is not suitable for prior assessment of GMCs and can be used as a methodology that assists EIS or SEA. The EIS, in turn, does not have the assignment to assess actions that involve extensive territories, but the pontual activities that take place in later stages of planning. SEA, in turn, would contribute to the decision-making regarding the commercial release of GMPs, according to its principles of transparency, social involvement, environmental planning, coverage of extensive territorial areas, assessment of cumulative and long-term impacts and continuous environmental monitoring. Thus, recommendations were made for the use of SEA in environmental planning involving commercial releases of GMPs in Brazil.

In den 1980er Jahren begannen viele Entwicklungsländer, ihre Saatgutmärkte zu liberalisieren. In der Folge verbreitete sich die Nutzung proprietärer Saatguttechnologien, einschließlich gentechnisch veränderter Pflanzen (GV-Pflanzen). Die Konsequenzen dieser Entwicklung für Kleinbauern werden seither kontrovers diskutiert. Kritiker befürchten, dass Privatisierung die Qualität von Saatgut sowie den kleinbäuerlichen Zugang zu ihm verschlechtert. Befürworter gehen davon aus, dass proprietäres Saatgut landwirtschaftliche Produktivität und Einkommen steigern kann. In dieser Dissertation untersuchen wir Auswirkungen proprietärer Saatguttechnologien auf Kleinbauern. Bacillus thuringiensis-Baumwolle (Bt-Baumwolle) in Indien und Hybridmais in Tansania. Der dritte Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt auf der Adoption proprietärer Saatguttechnologien, wo erneut auf Hybridmais in Tansania Bezug genommen wird. Infolge einer ausländischen Investition transferierte eine indische Saatgutfirma Mitte der 1990er Jahre die Bt-Technologie in mehrere Baumwollhybriden. Diese Hybriden wurden 2002 zum Anbau zugelassen. In den Folgejahren verwendeten auch zahlreiche andere Saatgutfirmen die Bt-Technologie in ihren Züchtungsprogrammen. 2011 bauten 7 Millionen Bauern auf etwa 90% der indischen Baumwollfläche Bt-Baumwolle an. Sie ist gegen Kapselbohrer, eine Gruppe wichtiger Schädlingsinsekten, resistent. Dadurch kann sie den Einsatz von Insektiziden verringern und außerdem den effektiven Ertrag erhöhen. Dies würde Kosteneinsparungen bei Pestiziden und höhere Erlöse nach sich ziehen, welche wiederum das landwirtschaftliche Einkommen steigern können. Wenn aber die Saatgutpreise von Bt-Baumwolle hoch und die Ertragseffekte klein sind, könnte der Einkommenseffekt gering oder negativ ausfallen. Zu den Auswirkungen von Bt-Baumwolle wurden viele Studien publiziert, aber Selektionsverzerrungen, die Entwicklungsdynamik der Effekte und über Einzelfelder hinausgehende Wirkungen wurden bisher nicht ausreichend berücksichtigt. Hier analysieren wir Paneldaten aus dem Zeitraum 2002-2008. Mithilfe von Fixed-Effects-Modellen reduzieren wir Selektionsverzerrungen und betrachten den zeitlichen Verlauf der Effekte. Unsere Schätzergebnisse zeigen, dass Bt im Zeitraum 2002-2008 den Ertrag um 24% und den Deckungsbeitrag um 50% erhöhte, sowie den Lebensstandard im Zeitraum 2006-2008 um 18%. Außerdem finden wir Hinweise für eine Steigerung der Ertrag- und Deckungsbeitragseffekte über den gesamten Zeitraum. Einen Rückgang des Insektizideinsatzes in Bt- und konventionellen Feldern, der wahrscheinlich ein Zeichen für eine starke Dezimierung von Kapselbohrern durch die Zunahme des Bt-Anbaus ist, können wir ebenfalls beobachten. Nach der Liberalisierung des Saatgutmarkts in Tansania Anfang der 1990er Jahre begannen mehrere private Saatgutfirmen mit dem Vertrieb von Hybridmais. Hybriden können zu einem Ertragszuwachs führen, der wiederum Erlös und Einkommen steigern kann. Auf der anderen Seite könnte der Einkommenseffekt negativ ausfallen, wenn Hybridsaatgut teurer als Nichthybridsaatgut ist. Zudem kann ein leistungsstarker Nichthybride durchaus auch einen höheren Ertrag erzielen als mancher Hybride. Es gibt zwar Studien, die Produktivitätseffekte von Hybridmais in Afrika evaluieren, aber in der Regel kontrollieren sie nicht Störfaktoren, wie etwa Bodenqualität oder Düngereinsatz. Darüber hinaus liegen kaum Untersuchungen zu modernen Maissorten in Afrika vor, die neben der Produktivität auch Effekte auf den Lebensstandard landwirtschaftlicher Haushalte berücksichtigen. Wir analysieren einen Querschnittsdatensatz aus dem Norden und Osten des Landes und finden einen Ertragszuwachs von 50-60% durch Hybriden. Dieser führt auch zu einem höheren Deckungsbeitrag. Die Zugewinne treten vor allem im Norden auf, wo sie außerdem den Lebensstandard um 15% erhöhen. Im Osten bringen Hybriden keine Vorteile hinsichtlich Ertrag, Deckungsbeitrag oder Lebensstandard. Da sich jedoch die Mehrheit der Anwender im Norden befindet, profitieren in einer überregionalen Betrachtung die meisten Hybridnutzer von der Technologie. Außerdem finden wir heraus, dass der Ertragseffekt von Hybriden unabhängig vom Einsatz von Mineraldünger, Bewässerung, Pestiziden oder Mischanbau ist. Allerdings ist die Adoptionsrate von Hybridmais in Tansania gering. Ein möglicher Grund könnte darin liegen, dass seine Verwendung durch bestimmte Faktoren, wie etwa einen mangelnden Informationstand der Bauern bezüglich der Hybriden, erschwert ist. In unserer Stichprobe bauen 31% der Bauern Hybridmais an. Im Norden sind Hybriden den meisten Bauern bekannt und 49% verwenden die Technologie, während im Osten nur 50% von der Technologie gehört haben und nur 12% sie nutzen. Mithilfe des Average Treatment Effect Framework errechnen wir, dass eine Informierung aller Bauern über Hybriden die Adoptionsrate auf 45% ansteigen lassen würde. Jedoch wären dann die meisten neuen Anwender im Osten, wo die Ertrags- und Deckungsbeitragseffekte von Hybriden klein sind. Im Norden, wo die Adoption einträglicher ist, haben bereits fast alle Bauern von Hybriden gehört. Außerdem zeigt sich, dass eine Verbreitung von Informationen über Hybriden durch Beratung und ländliche Netzwerke im Norden (nicht im Osten) stattfindet und daher als Resultat der dort höheren Nützlichkeit verstanden werden kann. Für diese Interpretation spricht auch, dass wir keine Hinweise finden, dass Risiko oder Mangel an Kreditzugang die Adoption verhindern. Daher erscheint es wahrscheinlich, dass Informationsflüsse und Adoptionsentscheidungen primär vom Nutzen, den Hybriden gegenüber Nichthybriden bieten, bestimmt werden. Wir kommen zu dem Schluss, dass der Privatsektor verbesserte Saatguttechnologien für Kleinbauern in Entwicklungsländern liefern kann und dass derartige Saatguttechnologien einschließlich GV-Pflanzen diesen Kleinbauern dienlich sein können. Daher sollte die Liberalisierung von Saatgutmärkten in Entwicklungsländern unterstützt werden. Außerdem müssen Regulierungen, welche die Verfügbarkeit von Saatguttechnologien einschränken, den möglichen Nutzen dieser Technologien für Landwirte berücksichtigen. Und schließlich sollten Politik und Geberorganisationen in ihren Förderentscheidungen die Beseitigung von Adoptionshemmnissen gegen die Schaffung verbesserter Technologien abwägen.

A liberação comercial de plantas geneticamente modificadas (PGMs) é assunto controverso, devido ao desconhecimento quanto aos potenciais impactos ambientais e sócioeconômicos que pode suscitar a curto, médio e longo prazo. De modo a regular as deliberações sobre o uso de organismos geneticamente modificados (OGMs) mecanismos regulatórios que se propõem a prever tais impactos estão sendo criados em diversas nações, sendo a análise de risco (AR) o instrumento de estudo ambiental normalmente empregado nos processos decisórios. No entanto, há contestações sobre seu uso como única ferramenta de análise ambiental de PGMs, já que não possibilita a avaliação dos impactos cumulativos, indiretos, de longo prazo e dos interesses das nações delineados em suas políticas, planos e programas (PPPs). Um instrumento proposto por alguns autores passível de abarcar tais considerações é a Avaliação Ambiental Estratégica, que busca inserir a variável ambiental durante as fases de planejamento que resultam na elaboração de PPPs. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o sistema regulatório envolvendo a liberação em escala comercial de PGMs no Brasil e as potenciais contribuições da AAE para o processo decisório, contemplando os princípios de uma boa governaça ambiental nos processos decisórios. Para tanto, aplicou-se um questionário eletrônico a agentes sociais interessados pelo tema visando identificar suas visões sobre o assunto, analisou-se os procedimentos utilizados na deliberação sobre o algodão MON1445 resistente ao herbicida glifosato e, por fim, efetuou-se a avaliação dos instrumentos análise de risco, estudo de impacto ambiental (EIA) e AAE quanto à inserção da variável ambiental nas tomadas de decisão. Os resultados obtidos foram: com relação ao sistema regulatório, cujos pressupostos encontram-se na Lei de Biossegurança, evidenciou-se a falta de legitimidade nas tomadas de decisão, as quais são realizadas pela CTNBio, enquanto que a Constituição brasileira atribui aos órgãos ambientais a deliberação sobre atividades potencialmente poluidoras, dentre estas aquelas que envolvam OGMs; a deficiência dos mecanismos de participação social, pois as audiências públicas ocorrem mediante decisão da CTNBio; a falta de acesso às informações, devido a não implementação do Sistema de Informações sobre Biossegurança (SIB), além do descumprimento de diversas legislações, que configuram no desrespeito à justiça ambiental. Em razão destes fatores, conclui-se que o sistema regulatório brasileiro sobre PGMs não se baseia em uma boa governança ambiental. Quanto aos instrumentos de avaliação de impactos ambientais, a análise de risco, em função dos aspectos acima levantados, não se adequa para a avaliação prévia de PGMs, podendo ser utilizada como uma metodologia que subsidie o EIA ou a AAE. O EIA, por sua vez, não tem a atribuição de avaliar ações que envolvam territórios abrangentes, mas sim de atividades pontuais que se dão em etapas posteriores de planejamento. Já a AAE contribuiria para a tomada de decisões no tocante à liberação comercial de PGMs, em função de seus princípios de transparência, envolvimento social, planejamento ambiental, abrangência de extensos recortes territoriais, avaliação de impactos cumulativos e de longo prazo e monitoramento ambiental contínuo. Deste modo, recomendou-se a utilização da AAE no planejamento ambiental envolvendo liberações comerciais de PGMs no Brasil. / The commercial release of genetically modified crops (GMCs) is controversial, due to the lack of knowledge about the potential environmental and socio-economic impacts that can lead to short, medium and long term. In order to regulate the deliberations on the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), regulatory mechanisms that are proposed to predict such impacts are being created in many nations, with risk analysis (RA) being the instrument normally used in environmental studies for decision-making. However, there are some doubts about its use as the only tool of environmental analysis of PGMs, since it does not allow the assessment of cumulative, indirect and long-term impacts and the interests of the nation outlined in their policies, plans and programs (PPPs). An instrument proposed by some authors likely to embrace such considerations is the Strategic Environmental Assessment, which seeks to insert the environmental variable during the planning stages that result in the development of PPPs. This thesis aimed to evaluate the regulatory system involving the commercial release of GMCs in Brazil and the potential contribution of SEA to decisionmaking process, incorporating the principles of good governance. To this end, we applied an electronic questionnaire to some social actors to identify their views on the subject, reviewed the procedures used in the deliberation of the glyphosate-resistant cotton MON1445 and, finally, we performed the evaluation of risk analysis, environmental impact statement (EIS) and SEA as tools of environmental parameter insertion in decision-making. The results obtained were: with respect to the regulatory system, whose assumptions are in the Biosafety law, there was a lack of legitimacy in decision-making, which are held by CTNBio, while the brazilian Constitution assigns the decision on potentially polluting activitities (among which is those related to the GMOs) to the environmental agencies; the deficiency of the mechanisms of social participation, since decisions for public hearings are taking by CTNBio; lack of access to information due to non-implementation of the Information Biosafety System (IBS), and the disrespect of various laws, whith disregard for environmental justice. Because of these factors, the brazilian regulatory system on PGMs is not based on good environmental governance. With regard to instruments for environmental studies, risk analysis, according to the aspects mentioned above, is not suitable for prior assessment of GMCs and can be used as a methodology that assists EIS or SEA. The EIS, in turn, does not have the assignment to assess actions that involve extensive territories, but the pontual activities that take place in later stages of planning. SEA, in turn, would contribute to the decision-making regarding the commercial release of GMPs, according to its principles of transparency, social involvement, environmental planning, coverage of extensive territorial areas, assessment of cumulative and long-term impacts and continuous environmental monitoring. Thus, recommendations were made for the use of SEA in environmental planning involving commercial releases of GMPs in Brazil.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-25T19:30:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lucas N Wisch.pdf: 1238431 bytes, checksum: fab61da00fd601e632d7feb86156e3da (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-26 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Soybean is the main crop of economic importance and commercially produced on a large scale in Brazil. Nevertheless many are the factors that affect the productive potential of this oilseed, among them stand out the insects of the order Lepidoptera. As an alternative to control these pests, many growers have adopted the use of Bt soybean, which expresses the Cry1Ac toxin. However, the large area with this technology can generates a main concern that is Cry1Ac exposure to target and non-target insects and its entomopathogens, such Metarhizium rileyi and nuclear polyhedrosis virus. The aim of this study were to elucidate the HD-73 impacts, that expresses Cry1Ac, i) in the immune system of S. frugiperda in order to investigate whether Bt challenge parental induce "immune priming or transgenerational effects"; ii) on virulence and occlusion body yield in Spodoptera frugiperda iii) level of larval mortality of the noctuid species when applied simultaneously or sequentially with NPV and M. rileyi; and iv) the biological parameters of the noctuid species, when exposed in conjunction with entomopathogens. In the immune assay, neonate larvae were exposed ad libitum to different concentrations of HD-73 (0, 15, 33, 72.6 μg.ml-1), in the fifth instar were extracted the haemolymph and measured the number of haemocytes, total protein and phenoloxidase activity (PO). Neonate offspring of those individuals were inoculated with 0 and 40 μg.ml-1 of HD-73 and again was quantified the same immune components in fifth instar larvae, including antibacteriana activity. In addition, biological parameters were observed in these tests. In the evaluation of Cry1Ac impacts on virus infectivity in S. frugiperda, neonate were exposed to HD-73 (0, 10, 40 and 80 μg.ml-1) until the end of the third instar and early of the fourth instar was inoculated with viruses (0, 103 and 104 OB.larvae-1). For this assay was evaluated larval weight (4 DAE), mortality, number of OB/caterpillar and subsequently, virulence test (LC50). Spodoptera cosmioides, Spodoptera eridania, S. frugiperda, Chrysodeixis includens and Rachiplusia nu caterpillars were simultaneously or sequentially exposed to entomopathogens, HD-73, M. rileyi and their viruses, and record mortality and biological parameters of these interactions. The sublethal concentrations of HD-73 did not cause changes in the immune system of the parental, as well as there was no evidence for acquired immunity in the offspring. Sublethal concentration of HD-73 affected the biological components of S. frugiperda, providing lower larval and pupal weight, reduced fecundity and egg viability. HD-73 proved lower OB yield/caterpillar and lower virulence of the virus multiplied in caterpillars prior exposed to 10 μg.ml-1. The interactions did not affect the biological parameters of these noctuids. In most cases was observed negative effect in the interactions between HD-73 and viruses, but may be promising simultaneous inoculation of HD-73 and M. rileyi to control S. eridania and S. frugiperda. Sublethal concentrations of HD-73 did not provide larger mortality of Plusiinae in interactions with M. rileyi and viruses, except for HD-73+ M. rileyi that had positive and negative effects on C. includens. / A soja é a principal cultura de importância econômica e comercialmente produzida em larga escala no Brasil. Porém, diversos são os fatores que afetam o potencial produtivo desta oleaginosa, entre eles destacam-se os insetos da ordem Lepidoptera. Como alternativa para controle destas pragas, diversos produtores têm adotado o uso da soja Bt, que expressa a toxina Cry1Ac. Contudo, a expansão da área com essa tecnologia gera dúvidas quanto ao impacto da exposição de Cry1Ac aos insetos-alvo e não-alvo e seus entomopatógenos, Metarhizium rileyi e os vírus de poliedrose nuclear. Assim, os objetivos desse trabalho foram: elucidar o impacto de concentrações subletais da cepa HD-73, que expressa Cry1Ac, i) no sistema imunológico de Spodoptera frugiperda, a fim de investigar se o desafio com Bt induz a “memória imunológica”; ii) na virulência e produção de corpos de oclusão do vírus em S. frugiperda; iii) na mortalidade larval das espécies de noctuídeos, quando aplicada de forma simultânea ou sequencial com VPN e M. rileyi; e iv) nos parâmetros biológicos de noctuídeos-alvo e não-alvo, quando aplicada em conjunto com os entomopatógenos. No ensaio imunológico, lagartas neonatas foram expostas ad libitum a diferentes concentrações de HD-73 (0, 15, 33, 72,6 μg.ml-1), no quinto instar foi extraída a hemolinfa e avaliado o número de hemócitos, proteína total e atividade da fenoloxidase (PO). Neonatas descendentes destes indivíduos foram inoculadas com 0 e 40 μg.ml-1 de HD-73 e no quinto instar quantificou-se os mesmos componentes de resposta imune observados nos parentais, incluindo a atividade antibacteriana. Os parâmetros biológicos também foram observados nestes ensaios. Nas avaliações do impacto de Cry1Ac na infectividade de vírus sobre S. frugiperda, neonatas foram inoculadas com HD-73 (0, 10, 40 e 80 μg.ml-1) e mantidas até o final do terceiro instar, e no início do quarto instar ocorreu a infecção com vírus (0, 103 e 104 CO.lagarta-1), após foi avaliado o peso larval (4 DAE), a mortalidade, o número de CO.cadáver-1 e, posteriormente, teste de virulência (CL50). Lagartas de Spodoptera cosmioides, Spodoptera eridania, S. frugiperda, Chrysodeixis includens e Rachiplusia nu, foram expostas de forma simultânea ou sequencial aos entomopatógenos, HD-73, M. rileyi e os respectivos vírus, para registrar a mortalidade e os parâmetros biológicos destas interações. As concentrações subletais de HD-73 não provocaram alterações no sistema imune dos parentais, como também não houve evidências de imunidade adquirida nas progênies. HD-73 afetou subletalmente os componentes biológicos de S. frugiperda, proporcionando menor peso larval e pupal, redução na fecundidade e viabilidade dos ovos. HD-73 proporcionou menor rendimento de CO.cadáver-1 e menor virulência dos vírus multiplicados em lagartas expostas a 10 μg.ml-1. As interações não afetaram os parâmetros biológicos dos noctuídeos em estudo. Na maioria dos casos observou-se efeito negativo nas interações entre HD-73 e vírus, mas podendo ser promissor a inoculação simultânea de HD-73 e M. rileyi no controle de S. eridania e S. frugiperda. Concentrações subletais de HD-73 não proporcionaram maior mortalidade das Plusiinae nas interações com M. rileyi e vírus, exceto na associação HD-73+M. rileyi que apresentou efeitos positivos e negativos sobre C. includens.

The main objective of my dissertation is to analyze and compare the socio-ecological implications of the adoption of genetically modified (GM) seeds and alternative agroecological farming methods for farming communities in Alberta, Canada and Andhra Pradesh, India localities situated in contrasting geopolitical, socio-cultural, and structural-institutional contexts in the global economy. For this research, the adoption of GM canola in Alberta and GM cotton in Andhra Pradesh are used as comparative case studies to explore the qualitative impact of agricultural biotechnology on farming communities. Many studies have examined the potential impact of GM crops, but few have looked beyond economic cost-benefit analysis. In this dissertation, I examine social and cultural aspects of farmer decision-making in the adoption of the new seed technology, farmer receptivity to new cropping methods, knowledge translation between laboratory and farmer, and the impact of global knowledge-based technology on local knowledge systems, socio-cultural practices, the nature-society relationship, and gender relations. I use a global ethnography methodology and draw on a series of field interviews with farmers to provide sociological insight into how global processes of the Gene Revolution impact different farming communities in different localities in the world-economy. In this dissertation I argue that the debate about the new agricultural technologies (e.g. GM seeds), the environment and agrarian crises should not be narrowed to the question of new technologies per se. Rather it should be understood from an agrarian political ecology perspective articulating political economy (neoliberal governance at global, national and provincial levels, and the processes of dispossession of primary agricultural producers from their means and conditions of production), socio-cultural systems (the construction of hegemonic discourse about genetically modified organisms, agricultural deskilling, gender relations), and ecosystems (a process of mastering nature, monoculturization, environmental risks, metabolic rift) in the context of neoliberal globalization. My fieldwork study of the Gene Revolution provides closer, more fine-grained research and analysis of its impacts with sensitivity to local class and status, gender and cultural issues, and the ways in which farmers technology adoption decisions can dramatically alter overall quality of life, local knowledge systems, community development, the sustainability of agriculture and the ecosystem itself.

No description available.

Genetically modified (GM) crops gained attention in southern Africa as countries are struggling with food insecurity and poverty to achieve sustainable development. The controversy around GM crops have provoked heated debates. GM crops are often perceived as a global risk to human health and the environment. The research question is what are the perceptions of environmental educators regarding the use of GM crops toward sustainable development. In the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development environmental educators will need to be key role players in addressing crucial issues such as GM crops. Their perceptions hold many implications for educational programmes. Environmental educators interviewed perceive GM crops as a serious issue. As mediators in a multidisciplinary setting between science and society, environmental educators can play a functional role. Open processes that require greater participation, criticality and reflexivity need to be facilitated in a complex biophysical and social context in southern Africa. / Educational Studies / M. Ed.(Environmental Education)

Hunger ist nach wie vor ein weit verbreitetes Problem. Nach der jüngsten Schätzung der FAO hungern weltweit noch immer über 800 Mio. Menschen. Prognosen gehen davon aus, dass die Agrarproduktion bis 2050 verdoppelt werden muss, um der steigenden Nachfrage nach Agrarprodukten durch Bevölkerungswachstum, Bioenergieproduktion und sich verändernde Ernährungsgewohnheiten zu begegnen. Unter vielen Möglichkeiten, das Welternährungsproblem zu beschreiben, wird in dieser Dissertation das Konzept der Ernährungssicherheit nach der Definition der FAO herangezogen. Ernährungssicherheit umfasst als wichtigste Aspekte die Verfügbarkeit von Nahrungsmitteln und den ökonomischen Zugang zu Nahrungsmitteln. Nahrungsmittelverfügbarkeit ist in erster Linie von einer global ausreichenden Produktion abhängig, der Zugang zu Nahrung von der Kaufkraft der Haushalte. Die Kaufkraft wird sowohl durch das Einkommen wie auch die Agrarpreise beeinflusst. Die Nahrungsmittelverfügbarkeit kann vor allem durch Ertragssteigerungen erhöht werden. Sollen die Ertragssteigerungen ressourcenschonend erfolgen, muss die Produktivität der Agrarproduktion bezogen auf alle Produktionsfaktoren inkl. Umweltgütern steigen. Nur durch technische und organisatorische Innovation kann dies realisiert werden. Ertragssteigerungen in Entwicklungsländern erhöhen gleichzeitig die Einkommen von potenziell von Hunger Betroffenen. Eine Begrenzung der Nachfrage nach Agrargütern kann global in erster Linie in den Bereichen Bioenergie und Konsum tierischer Produkte erfolgen. Simulationen können helfen, den Einfluss einzelner Faktoren der globalen Nachfrage und des Angebots nach Agrarrohstoffen und -produkten auf die Welternährungslage genauer abzuschätzen. Ein Großteil der Simulationen in der Literatur kommt mithilfe von partiellen oder allgemeinen Gleichgewichtsmodellen zu Aussagen über gehandelte Mengen und Preise oder Wohlfahrtseffekte. In dieser Arbeit wird ein einfaches partielles Gleichgewichtsmodell für den Weltmarkt für Biotreibstoffe, Fleisch und Getreide entwickelt und mit der Methode der FAO zur Schätzung der Zahl der Hungernden gekoppelt. Dies ermöglicht die Abschätzung des Einflusses verschiedener Szenarien auf die Zahl der Hungernden. Für das Referenzjahr 2011 werden Szenarien alternativer Nachfrage nach Fleisch und Biotreibstoffen simuliert, ebenso wie ein Szenario alternativer landwirtschaftlicher Produktivität in der Europäischen Union. Die Schätzungen ergeben einen signifikanten Einfluss der simulierten Nachfrage- und Angebotsverschiebungen. Im Vergleich mit dem Status Quo führt eine Reduktion des Fleischkonsums in den OECD-Ländern um 50% zu einer Reduktion der Zahl der Hungernden um 5%. Eine ii Flächenproduktivität im Getreideanbau in der EU auf dem Niveau von 1980 steigert die Zahl der Hungernden um mehr als 5%, ein Anstieg der Biotreibstoffquote in der OECD auf 10% erhöht die Zahl der Hungernden gar um 10%. Die Durchsetzung geeigneter politischer Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Welternährungslage kann durch eine breite öffentliche Unterstützung beschleunigt oder erst ermöglicht werden. Über die öffentliche Meinung zu Fragen der Welternährung in Deutschland existieren bisher keine expliziten Studien. In den Themenbereichen landwirtschaftliche Produktion und Nahrungsmittelkonsum stellt das Thema Welternährung nur einen Aspekt dar, der neben Fragen nach z.B. der Lebensmittelsicherheit und Gesundheit sowie den Auswirkungen von Agrarproduktion auf Landschaft und Umwelt steht. Hier werden Ergebnisse einer Online-Befragung zum Thema Welternährung präsentiert, die im März 2012 mit einer repräsentativen Stichprobe 1.200 deutscher Internetnutzer durchgeführt wurde. Die Befragung beinhaltete im Wesentlichen die Bewertung der Wirkung verschiedener potenzieller Ursachen der weltweiten Unterernährung, sowie Maßnahmen und Entwicklungen zu ihrer Lösung. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Thema Welthunger in erster Linie mit Merkmalen akuter (Hunger-) Krisen in Verbindung gebracht wird. Die vielversprechendsten Lösungsmaßnahmen sind in den Augen der Befragten der Ausbau des Fairen Handels, Absatzmärkte für Kleinbauern sowie ein Lebensmittelspekulationsverbot. Der intensiven Landwirtschaft in der Welt wie auch in Europa sowie insbesondere der Grünen Gentechnik wird kein Potenzial zur Lösung des Problems zugesprochen. Die Antwortmuster lassen auf die Präsenz eines Halo-Effekts mit einer Übertragung unterstellter negativer Umweltwirkungen auf das Thema Welternährung schließen. Die Grüne Gentechnik ist eine Agrartechnologie, die potenziell zur Angebotsausweitung von Agrarprodukten genauso beitragen kann wie zu einer ressourcenschonenderen Landwirtschaft. Bisherige Anwendungen, hauptsächlich Herbizidtoleranz sowie Insektenresistenz, haben u.a. zu einer Steigerung der effektiven Erträge, einer Einsparung von Insektiziden und einer Steigerung der Profite vor allem im Baumwollanbau beigetragen. Trotz zahlreicher Belege besteht über die Auswirkungen von gentechnisch veränderten (GV) Nutzpflanzen eine anhaltende Kontroverse. Ein Großteil der europäischen Bevölkerung lehnt den Anbau ebenso ab wie einen Verzehr von Produkten aus GV-Pflanzen. Unterstellte sozio-ökonomische Auswirkungen oder Auswirkungen auf die Welternährung sind nur zwei Determinanten von vielen, die zu den Einstellungen zur Grünen Gentechnik beitragen. Zur Konsolidierung des Wissens im Bereich agronomischer sowie sozio-ökonomischer Auswirkungen von GV-Pflanzen wurde eine Meta-Analyse durchgeführt. In wissenschaftlichen Datenbanken wurden iii 147 Primärstudien identifiziert, die für die Meta-Analyse verwendet wurden. Die Analyse beschränkt sich auf gentechnisch veränderte Sojabohnen, Mais und Baumwolle. Als mittlere Effekte des Anbaus von GV-Pflanzen ergibt die Meta-Analyse eine Steigerung des Ertrages um 22%, eine Reduktion der Menge der angewendeten Pflanzenschutzmittel um 37% und eine Steigerung der Profite der Bauern um 68%. Die Höhe der Effekte hängt stark von verschiedenen Faktoren ab. Die Effekte sind für alle drei genannten Variablen in Entwicklungsländern betragsmäßig größer als in Industrieländern. Auch sind die Effekte des Anbaus von GV-Pflanzen bei Erträgen und beim Pflanzenschutzmitteleinsatz betragsmäßig höher für insektenresistente Pflanzen als bei solchen mit Herbizidtoleranz. Aus den in der Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnissen kann geschlussfolgert werden, dass sowohl das Nahrungsmittelangebot gesteigert als auch die Nachfrage begrenzt werden sollte. Dies verlangt eine standortangepasste Ausnutzung vorhandener und die Entwicklung neuer Technologien. Auch die Gentechnik kann einen Beitrag leisten. Der Kleinbauernsektor muss vordringlich gefördert werden. Zur Begrenzung der Nachfrage können neben der Politik, welche vor allem die Biotreibstoffnachfrage beeinflussen kann, auch Konsumenten durch Verzicht auf tierische Produkte beitragen. Dies wie auch die Durchführung effektiver politischer Maßnahmen sind auf eine unverzerrte Sichtweise der Öffentlichkeit auf das Thema Welternährung angewiesen. Dazu muss das Thema in Wissenschaftskommunikation und Bildung stärker thematisiert werden.

Genetically modified (GM) crops gained attention in southern Africa as countries are struggling with food insecurity and poverty to achieve sustainable development. The controversy around GM crops have provoked heated debates. GM crops are often perceived as a global risk to human health and the environment. The research question is what are the perceptions of environmental educators regarding the use of GM crops toward sustainable development. In the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development environmental educators will need to be key role players in addressing crucial issues such as GM crops. Their perceptions hold many implications for educational programmes. Environmental educators interviewed perceive GM crops as a serious issue. As mediators in a multidisciplinary setting between science and society, environmental educators can play a functional role. Open processes that require greater participation, criticality and reflexivity need to be facilitated in a complex biophysical and social context in southern Africa. / Educational Studies / M. Ed.(Environmental Education)