The global threats of widespread biodiversity loss and climate change impact ecosystems daily, leading to far-reaching consequences for people who benefit from these systems in various ways. Despite these challenges, little is known about the differences in how people derive benefits from nature and who will become increasingly vulnerable to future global environmental change. Previous research has assessed the impact of inequality on nature’s benefits (or ecosystem services), but these efforts have primarily relied on socio-economic inequality measures. These measures overlook potential heterogeneity within groups based on characteristics such as gender, class, and ethnicity. Therefore, a multidimensional approach to understanding inequality is needed. This systematic mapping review aims to map the literature that explores multidimensional inequality in relation to ecosystem services (ES), specifically in terms of three types of ecosystem benefits: experience, use, and money. Key findings were that political-and economic inequalities are most frequently linked to all three types of benefits, with links between political inequality and the use of ES being particularly common in the literature. In contrast, studies that analyze inequalities based on religion, disabilities, and race in relation to ES are least common. Finally, experience is the least explored benefit in relation to inequality, potentially due to the challenges of assessing intangible benefits. This review also highlights the complexities of inequalities acting at different scales and potential trade-offs between inequality categories and ecosystem benefit types. Future research recommendations include further widening the inequality lens (primarily in the cultural and social dimensions) to improve our understanding of who benefits from nature to develop more effective, sustainable, and equitable policies and mitigate future threats.

This dissertation is an exploratory study of the ideas put forward by theorists of post-Development. This current of thought emerged as a radical critique of the Development discourse, proclaiming that no reformulation could change the essential character of it, that being the "Westernisation" of the world. As post-Development's definitions rely on their opposition to what Development represents, from a theoretical point of view as well as in the myriad of behaviours resulting from it, the starting point of the thesis is an analytical account of Development discourse through the various theories that have shaped it during the second half of the 20th century. Other theories that can be considered outside mainstream Development are also analysed as well as those conventionally classified as alternative Development. A whole chapter is then dedicated to thoroughly review the historical unfolding of the Development discourse. The following chapter deals with the ideas put forward by post-Development. It relies on a series of publications identified with this current of thought as well as with information provided by one of its most prominent authors, Dr. Wolfgang Sachs, in an interview conducted by the author of this thesis. It also uses an unpublished manuscript given to the author by Gustavo Esteva, also prominent in the constitution and dissemination of the ideas of post-Development. In an effort to identify whether post-Development has remained at the level of theoretical formulation or if it has informed practices on the ground, research about the activities and underlying beliefs of the Global Barter Network (in Uruguay and in Argentina) and the World Social Forum was undertaken. The field-study, which is presented in the 4th chapter of the thesis, aimed at researching these particular initiatives and draw conclusions with respect to the existence of coincidences with the ideas of post-Development. The dissertation concludes then with an analysis of post-Development's major contributions to the Development debate, of its relationship with already existing practices, of its distinctiveness from alternative Development. It analyses the originality of the post-Development discourse and makes proposals for further research. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: One of the most topical and widely discussed factors which could lead to the ultimate end of life on earth is global warming and its devastating effects. Several current trends clearly demonstrate that global warming is directly impacting on rising sea levels, the melting of icecaps and other significant worldwide climatic changes. These climatic changes will have a profound effect on the economy of the world as well as having health and social consequences for humans on earth. It has also become evident that mankind has played a significant role in causing global warming through its excessive burning of fossil fuels and its deforestation activities. Mainstream economists have increasingly realised that the prime cause of environmental problems is the absence of markets and more specifically, the absence of private ownership, which provide the foundation for markets. This occurrence has also been described in the literature as the tragedy of the commons. Mankind has come to a point in its history whereby it is in great danger of causing its own annihilation through the destruction of its natural environment. As a result of this, world leaders and many industrialists have realised that it is essential that the world must do something to preserve the natural environment. This was the rationale behind the Kyoto Protocol. In Kyoto 38 industrial states undertook to reduce their total emissions of six important greenhouse gases by at least 5 percent by the period 2012 at the latest. It was agreed in Kyoto that the system to be used to curb global warming should be based on free market principles that would focus on limiting the tragedy of the commons. On this basis it was agreed that the international trade in greenhouse gas emission allowances might fulfil an important role in providing countries and companies with the capabilities to achieve part of their reduction obligations. The Kyoto mechanism was therefore designed on the basis of emissions trading, but also had an equity objective with respect to developing countries. Supporters of the trading scheme are of the opinion that this market will guarantee that certain emission targets are met. In principle, the international trade in emission credits offers several advantages in terms of a flexible and cost-efficient realisation of the reduction obligations undertaken at Kyoto. Supporters of emissions trading are also of the opinion that trading in these gases also has economic and technological benefits. The answer to global warming might be as simple as buy low, sell high conventions. Now greenhouse-gas emissions are becoming a commodity that can be bought and sold on a worldwide scale, just like gold or soybeans. It is expected that the trading in greenhouse-gas emission rights will ultimately constitute the largest commodities market in the world. An international market for greenhouse gas emission allowances is already developing. However, rules governing such transactions are not fully worked out yet. The 178-nation Kyoto Protocol on global warming may provide a start, despite the US's refusal to support the treaty. It will be the aim of this thesis to provide understanding in terms of the functioning of emissions trading schemes and therefore the Kyoto mechanism as a solution to this problem of global warming. It will also be an important objective of this thesis to provide insight into the issues applicable to climatic change and the Kyoto mechanism. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Atmosfeerverwarming is wêreldwyd een van die mees bespreekte kwessies. Die nadelige effek van atmosfeerverwarming as gevolg van die toenemende kweekhuiseffek, het die potensiaal om tot die uiteindelike uitwissing van lewe op aarde te lei. Verskeie tendense dui daarop dat atmosfeerverwarming 'n direkte impak op stygende seevlakke, die ontvriesing van die pakys by die pole en ander noemenswaardige klimaatsversteuringe het. Indien iets drasties nie gedoen word om atmosfeer verhitting te keer nie, sal klimaatsversteuringe 'n geweldig nadelige effek op die wêreld ekonomie te weeg bring, asook 'n nadelige effek op gesondheids- en sosiale toestande tot gevolg hê. Dit het duidelik geword dat die aktiwiteite van die mensdom, hoofsaaklik verbranding van fossielbrandstowwe en ontbossing, te blameer is vir atmosfeerverwarming. Ekonome wêreldwyd het toenemend besef dat die hoofrede vir omgewingsprobleme, soos atmosfeerverwarming, toegeskryf kan word aan die afwesigheid van markte en meer spesifiek die afwesigheid van privaatbesit, wat in effek die basis van die vrye mark vorm. Hierdie gebeurtenis word in die ekonomiese literatuur beskryf as die "tragedie van die gemene goedere" . Wêreldpolitici en industriële leiers het besef dat die mens by 'n punt in sy geskiedenis gekom het waar hy moontlik sy eie uitwissing kan bewerkstellig en dat iets drasties gedoen moet word om die natuurlike omgewing te beskerm om sodoende volhoubare ekonomiese groei te verseker. Hierdie besef het gelei tot die totstandkoming van die Kyoto Protokol waar 38 nywerheidslande ooreengekom het om voor die jaar 2012 hul totale nasionale emissies van die ses belangrikste kweekhuisgasse met ten minste 5 persent tot onder hul 1990 emissievlakke te verminder. Daar was in Kyoto ooreengekom dat die stelsel wat gebruik moet word om die Kyoto doelwitte te bereik sterk vryemark eienskappe moet besit asook meganismes om regverdigheid en gelykheid tussen lande in terme van kweekhuisgasbeperkings te verseker. Die Kyoto meganismes is ontwerp met sterk vryemark eienskappe, wat basies 'n stelsel is waarvolgens lugbesoedelingsregte verhandel kan word. Hierdie verhandeling van besoedelingsregte kan toegepas word om kweekhuis gasse te verminder. Die Kyoto meganismes en dus lugbesoedelingsverhandeling verskaf buigbaarheid aan besighede en lande om hul onderskeie besoedelingsbeperkingsdoelwitte op die mees koste effektiewe manier te bereik. Die antwoord op atmosfeer verwarming kan dalk so eenvoudig wees soos koop laag en verkoop hoog. Kweekhuisgasse is besig om net soos graan of goud 'n kommoditeit te raak. Daar word verwag dat die verhandeling in kweekhuis gas besoedelingsregte uiteindelik sal groei tot die grootste kommoditeitsmark ter wêreld. Ondersteuners van die Kyoto meganismes is van mening dat kweekhuisgas verhandeling ook ekonomiese en tegnologiese voordele inhou. Dit is 'n oogmerk van die Kyoto meganismes om die verskuiwing van tegnologie tussen ontwikkelde en ontwikkelende lande asook volhoubare groei te verseker. 'n Grysmark vir kweekhuisgas regte is reeds internasionaal, voor die beplande instelling van die Kyoto meganismes, aan die ontwikkel. Die reëls en regulasies vir die Kyoto meganismes is nog nie gefinaliseer nie. Dit en die onwilligheid van die VSA om die Protokol te onderteken, belemmer die vroegtydige implementering van die Kyoto meganismes en die effektiwiteit van die stelsel. Dit is die doelwit van die werkstuk om die leser bekend te maak met die funksionering van emissieverhandeling as 'n vryemark stelsel om omgewingsprobleme soos atmosfeerverwarming te verminder. Die werkstuk beoog ook om die kwessies betrokke by klimaatsverandering en die Kyoto meganismes aan die leser te verduidelik.

Achieving food security under climate change is one of the biggest challenges of the 21st century. The challenge becomes even greater when contextualised within our current limited understanding of how the food system functions as a complex, adaptive socio-ecological system, with food security as one of its outcomes. Adding climate change into this already complex and uncertain mix creates a ‘wicked problem’ that must be solved through the development of adaptive food governance. The thesis has 4 key aims: <ul><li>1. To move beyond an understanding of food security that is dependent solely on agricultural production, and therefore the reliance of future food security predictions on production data based on climate model inputs.</li><li>2. To ground the theoretical aspects of complex adaptive systems with empirical data from multi-level case studies.</li><li>3. To investigate the potential role of the private sector in food system futures.</li><li>4. To analyse food system dynamics across scales and levels.</li></ul> In order to realise these aims, a complex adaptive system (CAS) approach within the GECAFS food system framework is employed to multilevel case studies in South Africa and Brazil. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of the private sector and how these vital actors, comprising a powerful component of the global food system, can be mobilized towards building adaptive capacity for a more resilient food system. Critically, the private sector is often left out of academic discussions on adaptation, which tend to focus more on civil society and governmental capacity to adapt. This thesis provides novel insight into how the power of the private sector can be harnessed to build adaptive capacity. The findings of the thesis showed that applying CAS to issues of governance has three important implications: The first is that in a complex system, it is critical to maintain diversity. This can translate into appreciating a multiplicity of viewpoints in order to reflect a range of decision-making options. This finding makes the case for closer synergy between the public and private sectors around areas like product development and distribution that includes an emphasis on enhancing food security under climate change. In the developing country context, the inclusion of smallholders and local entrepreneurs is also vital for building adaptive capacity. In this sense, it is possible for business to help achieve development goals by developing the capacity of those most vulnerable to socio-economic and environmental shocks. Secondly, adapting to climate change and other environmental and economic pressures will require a shift in mind-set that embraces the uncertainty of the future: ‘managing for uncertainty rather than against it’. This entails a shift in governance mindset away from linear thinking to a decision-making paradigm that is more flexible to deal with unexpected shocks. The third implication for governance is the need to understand the complex interplay of multiple interlinking processes and drivers that function across many levels and sometimes have exponential positive feedbacks in the food system. Adaptive governance is an iterative process, but as more is learnt and information is retained in the system, the ideal is that the beneficial processes that lower inequality and increase food security will start to be reinforced over those that entrench the current inequality in the food system.

This dissertation is an exploratory study of the ideas put forward by theorists of post-Development. This current of thought emerged as a radical critique of the Development discourse, proclaiming that no reformulation could change the essential character of it, that being the "Westernisation" of the world. As post-Development's definitions rely on their opposition to what Development represents, from a theoretical point of view as well as in the myriad of behaviours resulting from it, the starting point of the thesis is an analytical account of Development discourse through the various theories that have shaped it during the second half of the 20th century. Other theories that can be considered outside mainstream Development are also analysed as well as those conventionally classified as alternative Development. A whole chapter is then dedicated to thoroughly review the historical unfolding of the Development discourse. The following chapter deals with the ideas put forward by post-Development. It relies on a series of publications identified with this current of thought as well as with information provided by one of its most prominent authors, Dr. Wolfgang Sachs, in an interview conducted by the author of this thesis. It also uses an unpublished manuscript given to the author by Gustavo Esteva, also prominent in the constitution and dissemination of the ideas of post-Development. In an effort to identify whether post-Development has remained at the level of theoretical formulation or if it has informed practices on the ground, research about the activities and underlying beliefs of the Global Barter Network (in Uruguay and in Argentina) and the World Social Forum was undertaken. The field-study, which is presented in the 4th chapter of the thesis, aimed at researching these particular initiatives and draw conclusions with respect to the existence of coincidences with the ideas of post-Development. The dissertation concludes then with an analysis of post-Development's major contributions to the Development debate, of its relationship with already existing practices, of its distinctiveness from alternative Development. It analyses the originality of the post-Development discourse and makes proposals for further research. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil.

Les abondances atmosphériques du dioxyde de carbone et du méthane augmentent progressivement, modifiant probablement le climat global de l'atmosphère. Bien que ces effets soient très étudiés dans la troposphère, ils le sont peu dans l'atmosphère moyenne (20 - 120 km) où ils pourraient avoir un impact plus facilement détectable. Nous nous intéressons en particulier à la mésosphère/basse thermosphère (MLT), où apparaissent de plus en plus souvent des nuages mésosphériques polaires (PMC). La MLT est sensible au niveau d'activité solaire, qui varie selon un cycle de onze ans.<p>Nous évaluons les impacts de ces deux changements anthropiques et de ce cycle naturel sur la température et la chimie de la MLT. Pour ce faire, nous participons au développement d'un modèle bidimensionnel de l'atmosphère :SOCRATES. Ce modèle calcule interactivement les moyennes zonales des vents, de la température et de la composition chimique de l'atmosphère en fonction de la latitude (85°S-85°N) et de l'altitude (0-120 km). Avant de nous intéresser au changement global, nous avons dû améliorer SOCRATES pour qu'il reproduise au mieux la situation chimique, dynamique et thermique actuellement observée.<p>Nous avons ainsi modifié la résolution du système chimique; développé une nouvelle paramétrisation de l'absorption par O2 du rayonnement solaire ultraviolet à Lyman-&61537; (121.6 nm) [Chabrillat et Kockarts, 1997] ;créé une approximation des sources thermosphériques de NO; paramétrisé le forçage dynamique par déferlement des ondes de gravité pour reproduire de manière très réaliste les observations actuelles de température dans la MLT ;et développé un algorithme pour prendre en compte non seulement la diffusion turbulente mais aussi la diffusion moléculaire. Tous ces développements sont décrits en détail, et leurs effets sur la physico-chimie de la. MLT sont analysés. Les concentrations chimiques calculées par le modèle sont comparées avec succès à des observations - en particulier de l'ozone et du radical hydroxyle.<p>Nous étudions ensuite en détail l'impact du cycle solaire de onze ans sur la MLT. Une analyse complète du budget thermique nous permet d'établir, par exemple, que la raie Lyman-&61537; est responsable de la moitié du réchauffement entre SOLMIN et SOLMAX. Nous évaluons alors la sensibilité de la MLT à un doublement (théorique) de l'abondance de C02. Nous trouvons qu'aux hautes latitudes et en été, zone d'apparition des PMC, cet effet est très faible. Puis nous réalisons une simulation où le méthane est ramené à son niveau préindustriel. L'accroissement de CH4 depuis cette époque est responsable, non seulement de l'augmentation de la vapeur d'eau dans l'atmosphère moyenne, mais aussi d'un léger refroidissement dans la MLT. Cet effet est maximal dans les régions polaires et en été, là où les deux autres sont minimaux.<p>Nous concluons par une grande simulation intégrée de l'évolution du climat et de la chimie de l'atmosphère moyenne au cours du XXIe siècle. Nous trouvons qu'au niveau d'apparition des PMC, la tendance au refroidissement est plus faible que partout ailleurs. Par contre, la vapeur d'eau augmente plus rapidement en été qu'en hiver. Ces calculs fournissent des indices pour réconcilier les observations plus fréquentes des PMC avec une synthèse des températures mesurées dans l'été arctique, selon laquelle les températures n'auraient pas varié depuis quarante ans.<p> / Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

In Ethiopia people are highly dependent on natural resources which often lead to environmental degradation. The perception is that environmental degradation is partly due to lack of environmental awareness. The level of environmental awareness and the role of the media in creating awareness in Kembata Tembaro Administrative zone were investigated. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies were used to identify sources of environmental knowledge, content, spatial extent, volume and priority of media coverage, impact of media, and expectation of audiences and producers. Experience, rather than outside sources, such as provided by the media, is the main source of environmental information, but awareness is key to reduce further environmental degradation. Environmental media programs should be transmitted at suitable times and the experiences of successful farmers in natural resources conservation and development should be shared. Attention should also be given to identification of awareness obstacles and training and sensitizing of journalists on environment issues

In Ethiopia people are highly dependent on natural resources which often lead to environmental degradation. The perception is that environmental degradation is partly due to lack of environmental awareness. The level of environmental awareness and the role of the media in creating awareness in Kembata Tembaro Administrative zone were investigated. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies were used to identify sources of environmental knowledge, content, spatial extent, volume and priority of media coverage, impact of media, and expectation of audiences and producers. Experience, rather than outside sources, such as provided by the media, is the main source of environmental information, but awareness is key to reduce further environmental degradation. Environmental media programs should be transmitted at suitable times and the experiences of successful farmers in natural resources conservation and development should be shared. Attention should also be given to identification of awareness obstacles and training and sensitizing of journalists on environment issues

Currently the world is in the midst of a major ecological crisis, of which climate change is a key element. It is contended that this ecological destruction is largely a result of the underlying values controlling ethics and the controlling instinct of the modern worldview, which has been dominant for the past three centuries. The most recent and still emerging worldview, postmodernism, is examined and contrasted as a rebuttal to the modernistic tendencies and ethics. Utilising Ecclesiastes 1: 1-18, the ethical themes that the author of Ecclesiastes used are explored and paralleled to similar views found in postmodernism. Together, these biblical and postmodern thoughts illustrate how a strong environmental ethic can be formed that counters the modernistic worldview of controlling creation. The outcome of this research is to integrate aspects of postmodern thought with the book of Ecclesiastes to present a theological ethical basis from which a Christian can view and act towards creation. / Systematic Theology & Theological Ethics / M.Th. (Theological Ethics)

Les changements environnementaux globaux (CEG) menacent les écosystèmes marins et les populations humaines qui en dépendent. Une recherche scientifique croissante tente d’évaluer les impacts des changements environnementaux sur les écosystèmes et les services écosystémiques, notamment pour guider les politiques publiques. Focalisée sur les systèmes socio-écologiques (SSE) des récifs coralliens, cette thèse analyse les approches proposées dans la littérature et conçoit de nouvelles méthodologies, évaluations et indicateurs pour guider la science et l’action publique. Nous montrons qu’une stratégie de recherche régionale doit prendre en compte la complexité et produire de meilleures projections des impacts des CEG sur les récifs coralliens et les services associés. Nous cartographions des indicateurs à l’échelle globale pour évaluer où la dépendance des sociétés aux récifs coralliens sera affectée par les menaces globales dues à un niveau de CO2 élevé. Nous analysons comment la science répond aux impacts des CEG sur les récifs coralliens et nous identifions des pistes pour la recherche. Enfin, nous opérationnalisons une facette de la vulnérabilité, la capacité d’adaptation écologique, pour servir d’outil pour évaluer l’effectivité des actions locales dans un contexte de CEG. Ce manuscrit contribue à des avancées théoriques et méthodologiques sur l’évaluation des impacts, de la vulnérabilité et de l’adaptation aux CEG. Il développe des approches interdisciplinaires pour l’étude des SSE et des services écosystémiques, ciblant les récifs coralliens comme étude de cas. Enfin, il analyse l’émergence d’un champ scientifique sur les solutions aux GEC pour les récifs coralliens. / Global environmental change (GEC) in the ocean threatens marine ecosystems and the people who depend on them. A growing scientific effort is attempting to evaluate the impacts of environmental changes on ecosystems and ecosystem services and guide policy-making to respond to this global issue. Focusing on social-ecological systems of coral reefs, this thesis critically reviews the approaches put forward in the literature to understand gaps and to design new methodologies, assessments, and indicators to guide science and policy. Our findings show that a regionally targeted strategy of research should address complexity and provide more realistic projections about the impacts of GEC on coral reefs ecosystems and ecosystem services. We map global-scale indicators to understand where human dependence on coral reef ecosystems will be affected by globally-driven threats expected in a high-CO2 world. We then analyze how science is responding to the challenge posed by GEC on coral reefs and to identify gaps in research.Finally, we attempt to operationalize an overlooked component of vulnerability assessments, ecological adaptive capacity, to serve as a tool to help assess where local actions can be effective in the context of climate change. This manuscript contributes to theoretical and methodological advances to evaluate impacts, vulnerability and adaptation to GEC. It develops interdisciplinary approaches for the study of social-ecological systems and ecosystem services, targeting coral reefs as a case study. Finally, it synthesizes critically the emergence of a scientific field on solutions to GEC for coral reef social-ecological systems.