Legalmente, foi implementado pelo Governo Federal, o Programa Nacional de Produção do Biodiesel (PNPB). Entretanto, sua produção gera o glicerol. Para os pesquisadores, caso disposto indevidamente, esse coproduto poderá acarretar problemas ambientais. Assim, se o intuito é alcançar a sustentabilidade com a implantação do biodiesel na matriz energética, tornase relevante sua adequada gestão, uma vez que não há controle sobre sua produção e destinação. Falhas de mercado geralmente coexistem com as chamadas falhas de regulação. Nesse contexto, o objetivo foi analisar alternativas de destinação do glicerol realizadas por produtores de biodiesel que podem contribuir no âmbito das medidas compensatórias e mitigadoras. Os métodos utilizados foram pesquisa bibliográfica, documental e de campo para se estudar a teoria e a prática que envolvem o tema. A análise de conteúdo foi realizada com o uso do software MAXQDA®. Além das unidades estudadas, compostas por grandes e pequenos produtores de biodiesel, foram entrevistados engenheiros químicos e pesquisadores na área. Como resultados tem-se que as alternativas de destinação do glicerol realizadas pelos pequenos produtores estudados parecem evidenciar alocação eficiente de recursos. Assim, dentre os aspectos sustentáveis, o econômico se destaca na forma de oportunidade de negócios e geração de renda para o pequeno produtor. Ao contrário, nos grandes produtores, uma vez que poderá demandar maiores custos de transação a destinação é ineficiente e transferida para terceiros. Assim, buscando perpetuar o sistema econômico e proteger o meio ambiente, espera-se que os resultados possam fornecer subsídios para a implantação de políticas que visem remediar ineficiências relacionadas à preservação ambiental e sustentabilidade nos negócios. / Legally, the Federal Government implemented the National Biodiesel Production Program (PNPB). However, its production generates glycerol. For researchers, if improperly disposed of, this co-product could lead to environmental problems. Thus, if the intention is to achieve sustainability with the implementation of biodiesel in the energy matrix, it becomes relevant its adequate management, since there is no control over its production and destination. Market failures generally coexist with so-called regulatory failures. In this context, the objective was to analyze which alternatives of destination of glycerol carried out by biodiesel producers can contribute in the scope of the compensatory and mitigating measures. The methods used were bibliographic, documentary and field research to study the theory and practice that involve the theme. Content analysis was performed using MAXQDA® software. In addition to the units studied, composed of large and small biodiesel producers, were interviewed chemical engineers and researchers in the area. As a result, the alternatives of destination of the glycerol carried out by the small producers studied seem to show efficient allocation of resources. Thus, among the sustainable aspects, the economic stands out in the form of business opportunity and income generation for the small producer. On the contrary, in large producers, the destination is transferred to third parties, since it may demand higher transaction costs. Thus, a system is proposed to encourage, discipline and facilitate alternatives that may contribute to the perpetuation of the economic system in conjunction with environmental protection, attributing functionality to compensatory and mitigating measures. It is hoped that the results could contribute to the implementation of policies aimed at increasing subsidies, especially for small producers.

La déshydratation du glycérol en acroléine en phase gazeuse sur catalyseur solide a été étudiée pour comprendre la formation des sous-produits, déterminer un mécanisme réactionnel et expliquer la désactivation du catalyseur. Les expériences ont été réalisées dans un réacteur isotherme à lit fixe sous différentes conditions opératoires. Pour déterminer les chemins réactionnels de la réaction, de nombreux sous-produits ont été passés séparément sur le catalyseur. Une chromatographie gazeuse en ligne, en continu et originale a été utilisée pour analyser tous les produits de la réaction simultanément. Deux produits ont été quantifiés par chromatographie liquide et de nouveaux composés ont été identifiés par chromatographie gazeuse couplée à un spectromètre de masse. Un mécanisme réactionnel a été proposé. Pour comprendre la désactivation du catalyseur, les produits responsables du dépôt carboné ont été identifiés et la chute de la conversion du glycérol au cours du temps a été modélisée / Glycerol dehydration to form acrolein in gas phase over a solid acid catalyst was studied to understand by-products formation, to determine a detailed mechanism and to explain the deactivation process. Experiments were run in an isothermal fixed bed reactor under different operating conditions. To understand the multiple pathways of the glycerol dehydration mechanism, many by-products of the reaction were passed separately over the catalyst. An original multivalve on-line gas chromatography was used to analyze the whole reaction products continuously and simultaneously. Two products were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography, and the unknown products were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. A detailed reaction mechanism was then proposed. In order to understand the deactivation process, compounds responsible of carbon deposit were identified and the glycerol conversion fall during an experiment was modelled

The influence of several hardwoods and softwoods pulp fibre on the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets was investigated. The effect of properties such as density, grammage, Fractional Contact Area (FCA), Water Retention Value (WRV), fines content and fibre morphology were also investigated on the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets. Further, the influence of Lyocell fibre and glycerol on the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets is reported. Experimental results showed that in general the free shrinkage of hardwood pulps is a few percent higher than that of softwood pulps at the same density. It was found that although free shrinkage increases with fines content, a high fines content does not imply high shrinkage, and some pulp samples with higher amount of fines, exhibited lower free shrinkage. For all pulps at low densities there is little influence of grammage on free shrinkage, though as density increases a significant dependence is observed. The results showed that the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets formed from hardwood pulps is more sensitive to grammage compared to that of softwood pulps. Interestingly, it was shown that some pulp samples with the same intrinsic density, WRV and FCA exhibited different free shrinkage over the range of grammages. In addition, some pulp samples with stiffer fibres but higher amount of fines exhibited higher free shrinkage. Experimental results showed that longitudinal shrinkage of a fibre is an important parameter and pulp samples with higher microfibril angle (MFA) exhibited higher longitudinal shrinkage. Finally, the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets was reduced by applying Lyocell fibre and glycerol. Interestingly, by adding a small amount of Lyocell fibre, 2%, an increase in tensile index, tensile energy absorption (TEA) and modulus is observed, while the free shrinkage reduced up to 2%. In addition, adding glycerol to the pulp samples not only reduced the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets up to 1.5%, but also mechanical properties, such as tensile index and stretch slightly improved.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a potencialidade do óleo de macaúba como matéria-prima para síntese de biodiesel pela rota enzimática. Utilizou-se como proposta a transesterificação do óleo de macaúba com etanol mediada pela enzima lipase em fluxo contínuo empregando reator de leito fixo, visando obter amostras de biodiesel com propriedades adequadas à sua utilização como biocombustível. A enzima selecionada para desenvolvimento experimental foi a lipase microbiana de Burkholderia cepacia imobilizada em suporte híbrido não comercial (SiO2-PVA). Foram testados reatores de leito fixo de um estágio e dois estágios. A primeira etapa do trabalho foi direcionada para testes visando avaliar a influência da razão entre a altura (l) e o diâmetro (d) do reator de leito fixo na etanólise do óleo de macaúba. As reações foram operadas continuamente por 20 dias, utilizando óleo: etanol numa razão molar de 1:12 na ausência de solvente e tempo espacial de 14h. Dois reatores foram testados: Reator A (l = 55 mm e d = 15 mm) e Reator B (l = 210 mm e d = 14 mm), apresentando relação geométrica (l/d) de 3,7 e 15, respectivamente. Os dados obtidos indicaram influência das dimensões da coluna empacotada na produção de biodiesel e nas condições testadas, a maior razão altura/ diâmetro não interferiu na transferência de massa do fluido através da coluna. O melhor desempenho foi obtido no sistema experimental que empregou o reator B, atingindo 89,7 ± 4,8% de rendimento e 40,4 ± 2,2 mgéster.gmeio -1.h--1 de produtividade. Na sequência o trabalho foi direcionado para a execução de testes empregando reatores de leito fixo (Reator B) duplo estágio incorporando uma coluna empacotada com resina catiônica (Lewatit® GF 202) para remover o glicerol formado e proporcionar um incremento na formação de ésteres de etila em relação ao primeiro estágio. O desempenho do reator foi avaliado para diferentes tempos espaciais (10 a 16h), mantendo fixas as demais condições operacionais (substrato constituído de óleo de macaúba e etanol na razão molar óleo: etanol de 1:12 e temperatura de 50 ºC). O funcionamento do sistema foi comprovado quantitativamente para tempos espaciais no sistema igual a 16h, resultando em valores médios de produtividade de 36,7 ??2,4 mgéster.gmeio -1.h-1com perdas mínimas de matéria-prima (rendimento de transesterificação = 96,3 ??2,1%), sem redução de eficiência durante 25 dias de operação. As amostras de biodiesel purificadas apresentaram baixos teores de monoacilgliceróis (3,8%) ausência de diacilgliceróis e viscosidade cinemática média de 5,8 ± 0,3 mm2.s-1, atendendo as normas vigentes pela resolução ANP n°14/2012, que estabelece viscosidade cinemática do B100 na faixa entre 3,0 - 6,0 mm2.s-1. O biocatalisador foi estável quanto suas características morfológicas e catalíticas, revelando tempo de meia-vida de 423 h. Desta forma, a configuração do sistema reacional constituído por reator de leito fixo duplo estágio com a remoção simultânea de glicerol tem grande potencial para atingir elevado rendimento de transesterificação, aumentando a produtividade de biodiesel e consequentemente diminuindo o custo do processo industrial. Em geral, os resultados foram promissores e mostraram o potencial do óleo de macaúba para ser usado como matéria-prima para a produção de biodiesel em fluxo contínuo. / The present study aimed at assessing the potential of macaw palm oil as a raw material for the synthesis of biodiesel by enzymatic route. The proposed experimental was to develop a process that was able to transesterify the macaw palm oil with ethanol by immobilized lipase in packed bed reactor under continuous flow, in order to obtain biodiesel having suitable properties to be used as a fuel. The enzyme chosen for the development of this work was the microbial lipase from Burkholderia cepacia immobilized on non-commercial hybrid matrix SiO2-PVA. Single and two stages packed bed reactors were tested. Initially the influence of the reactor dimensions and ratio between height (l) and diameter (d) in the performance of the ethanolysis of macaw palm oil was assessed. Tests were carried out using two reactors (A and B) having different geometric relations: Reactor A (l = 55 mm and d = 15 mm) and Reactor B (l = 210 mm and d = 14) which corresponded to height/diameter (l/d = 3.7 and l/d = 15), respectively. Runs were performed continuously for 20 days using substrate containing oil to ethanol molar ratio of 1:12 in a solvent-free system and fixed space time of 14h. Data suggested that the dimensions of the packed column had a slight influence on the biodiesel production and under the conditions tested, the highest relation (l/d = 15) did not affect the fluid mass transfer throughout the reactor column. Under these conditions runs carried out in the reactor B provided average yields of 89.7 ± 4.8% and productivities of 40.4 ± 2.2 mgester?g-1?h-1. Following this, a two-stage packed bed reactor incorporating a column with cationic resin (Lewatit® GF 202) to remove the glycerol formed as by-product was used. The reactor performance was quantified for four different flow rates corresponded to spatial times from 10 to 16 h. For each condition, the influence of spatial times in the ethyl esters formation, transesterification yields and productivities were determined. The reactor operation was demonstrated for spatial time igual to 16 h, attaining ethyl ester formation of 58.1?2.1 wt%, transesterification yields of 96.3 ??2.1% and productivities of 36.7 ??2.4 mgester?g-1?h-1 with no significant reduction in the efficiency during 25 days. The purified samples showed residual levels of monoglycerides (3.8 wt %), absence of diglycerides and average viscosity values of 5.8 mm2/s which can be considered appropriated according to Brazilian resolution ANP n° 14/2012. The immobilized lipase on SiO2-PVA was found to be stable regarding its morphological and catalytic characteristics, showing half-life time (t1/2) higher than 423 h. Therefore, the continuous packed-bed reactor connected in series with simultaneous glycerol removal has a great potential to attain high level of transesterification yields, raising biodiesel productivity, consequently decreasing industrial process cost. Overall, the results were promising and showed the potential of macaw palm oil to be used as feedstock for biodiesel production under continuous flow.

A membrana amniótica (MA) é considerada um biomaterial com propriedades biológicas benéficas ao processo de reparação tecidual, servindo ao tratamento de feridas e queimaduras. Recentemente, tem sido usada como substrato para a construção de substitutos cutâneos, possibilitando o cultivo de queratinócitos humanos. Contudo, por se tratar de um material biológico, com risco de transmissão de doenças infectocontagiosas, necessita ser conservado e esterilizado antes de seu uso clínico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da radiação ionizante sobre membranas amnióticas gliceroladas, com ênfase em sua compatibilidade ao cultivo de queratinócitos humanos. Quatro MA foram conservadas em altas concentrações de glicerol (>85%), sendo metade delas enviadas para radioesterilização a 25 kGy. Constituíram-se dois grupos de estudo: MA não irradiadas (MA-ni) e MA irradiadas (MA-i). Ambos os grupos foram submetidos a protocolo padronizado de desepitelização e avaliados por microscopia óptica (Hematoxilina-eosina e Picrossirius), imunofluorescência para colágeno IV e laminina e microscopia eletrônica. Posteriormente, foram cultivados queratinócitos humanos sobre as superfícies desepitelizadas das bases de MA-ni e MA-i em situação imersa e em interface ar-líquido. Foram comparados os resultados nos instantes 14 e 21 dias de cultivo, por microscopia óptica e eletrônica. As análises microscópicas, após a denudação epitelial, demonstraram que no grupo não irradiado a continuidade da membrana basal encontrava-se preservada, enquanto no grupo irradiado não existia nenhum indício de resquício da presença da membrana basal na superfície do material. O resultado das culturas de queratinócitos mostrou que no grupo não irradiado houve crescimento de um epitélio multiestratificado e diferenciado, inclusive com a formação de estrato córneo na situação de interface ar-líquido. No grupo irradiado, o epitélio formado era composto por duas a três camadas de estratificação e discreta diferenciação celular, com semelhanças entre o cultivo imerso ou em exposição ao ar. A MA glicerolada foi compatível ao crescimento de epitélios cultivados, demonstrando potencial ao uso como um possível substituto dermoepidérmico. A irradiação a 25 kGy provocou danos estruturais às MA, levando a alterações na membrana basal e facilitando a sua perda quando exposta ao protocolo de desepitelização. Esta perda pode explicar a diferença nos resultados do cultivo de queratinócitos em MA-i em relação ao MA-ni / The amniotic membrane (AM) is a biomaterial with biological properties that are beneficial to tissue repair. It has been used as a temporary coverage to threat burns and chronic wounds. Recently, it has been served as a substrate for keratinocytes culture to construct a living skin equivalent. However, MA is a biological material, and its transplantation could cause infectious disease for receptors. So, it must be preserved and sterilized before clinical use. The aim of this study was to evaluate the radiation effects on glycerol-preserved MA, considering its compatibility to support human keratinocytes culture. Four MA were stored in high concentrations of glycerol (> 85%) and half of them were radio sterilized with a dose of 25 kGy. Then, we established two groups: non-irradiated MA (MA-ni) and irradiated MA (MA-i). Both groups was de-epithelialized by a standardized protocol and was investigated morphologically, immunohistochemical and ultraestructural. Subsequently human keratinocytes were cultivated immersed and in air-liquid interface on denuded surface of MA-i and MA-ni. The results were compared at 14 and 21 days of culture by light and electron microscopy. After epithelial denudation, analyses demonstrated the continuity of the basement membrane in MA-ni group, whereas in the irradiated group, there was no indication of the basement membranes presence on the surface of MA. The cell cultures showed that in the non-irradiated group, there was growth of a multi-layered and differentiated epithelium, with a stratum corneums formation in air-liquid interface. In the irradiated group, the epithelium had only two or three layer, little cell differentiation, with the same results immersed or air-liquid interface system. Glycerol-preserved MA was biocompatible with the growth of a cultivated epithelium, showing its potential as a skin substitute. Irradiation at 25 kGy cause structural damage to the tissue, making changes in basement membrane, that facilitates its loss when exposed to the de-epithelialized protocol. The basement membranes loss may explain the difference between the keratinocytes cultivation on MA-I and MA-ni

A membrana amniótica (MA) é considerada um biomaterial com propriedades biológicas benéficas ao processo de reparação tecidual, servindo ao tratamento de feridas e queimaduras. Recentemente, tem sido usada como substrato para a construção de substitutos cutâneos, possibilitando o cultivo de queratinócitos humanos. Contudo, por se tratar de um material biológico, com risco de transmissão de doenças infectocontagiosas, necessita ser conservado e esterilizado antes de seu uso clínico. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da radiação ionizante sobre membranas amnióticas gliceroladas, com ênfase em sua compatibilidade ao cultivo de queratinócitos humanos. Quatro MA foram conservadas em altas concentrações de glicerol (>85%), sendo metade delas enviadas para radioesterilização a 25 kGy. Constituíram-se dois grupos de estudo: MA não irradiadas (MA-ni) e MA irradiadas (MA-i). Ambos os grupos foram submetidos a protocolo padronizado de desepitelização e avaliados por microscopia óptica (Hematoxilina-eosina e Picrossirius), imunofluorescência para colágeno IV e laminina e microscopia eletrônica. Posteriormente, foram cultivados queratinócitos humanos sobre as superfícies desepitelizadas das bases de MA-ni e MA-i em situação imersa e em interface ar-líquido. Foram comparados os resultados nos instantes 14 e 21 dias de cultivo, por microscopia óptica e eletrônica. As análises microscópicas, após a denudação epitelial, demonstraram que no grupo não irradiado a continuidade da membrana basal encontrava-se preservada, enquanto no grupo irradiado não existia nenhum indício de resquício da presença da membrana basal na superfície do material. O resultado das culturas de queratinócitos mostrou que no grupo não irradiado houve crescimento de um epitélio multiestratificado e diferenciado, inclusive com a formação de estrato córneo na situação de interface ar-líquido. No grupo irradiado, o epitélio formado era composto por duas a três camadas de estratificação e discreta diferenciação celular, com semelhanças entre o cultivo imerso ou em exposição ao ar. A MA glicerolada foi compatível ao crescimento de epitélios cultivados, demonstrando potencial ao uso como um possível substituto dermoepidérmico. A irradiação a 25 kGy provocou danos estruturais às MA, levando a alterações na membrana basal e facilitando a sua perda quando exposta ao protocolo de desepitelização. Esta perda pode explicar a diferença nos resultados do cultivo de queratinócitos em MA-i em relação ao MA-ni / The amniotic membrane (AM) is a biomaterial with biological properties that are beneficial to tissue repair. It has been used as a temporary coverage to threat burns and chronic wounds. Recently, it has been served as a substrate for keratinocytes culture to construct a living skin equivalent. However, MA is a biological material, and its transplantation could cause infectious disease for receptors. So, it must be preserved and sterilized before clinical use. The aim of this study was to evaluate the radiation effects on glycerol-preserved MA, considering its compatibility to support human keratinocytes culture. Four MA were stored in high concentrations of glycerol (> 85%) and half of them were radio sterilized with a dose of 25 kGy. Then, we established two groups: non-irradiated MA (MA-ni) and irradiated MA (MA-i). Both groups was de-epithelialized by a standardized protocol and was investigated morphologically, immunohistochemical and ultraestructural. Subsequently human keratinocytes were cultivated immersed and in air-liquid interface on denuded surface of MA-i and MA-ni. The results were compared at 14 and 21 days of culture by light and electron microscopy. After epithelial denudation, analyses demonstrated the continuity of the basement membrane in MA-ni group, whereas in the irradiated group, there was no indication of the basement membranes presence on the surface of MA. The cell cultures showed that in the non-irradiated group, there was growth of a multi-layered and differentiated epithelium, with a stratum corneums formation in air-liquid interface. In the irradiated group, the epithelium had only two or three layer, little cell differentiation, with the same results immersed or air-liquid interface system. Glycerol-preserved MA was biocompatible with the growth of a cultivated epithelium, showing its potential as a skin substitute. Irradiation at 25 kGy cause structural damage to the tissue, making changes in basement membrane, that facilitates its loss when exposed to the de-epithelialized protocol. The basement membranes loss may explain the difference between the keratinocytes cultivation on MA-I and MA-ni

Diversos pesquisadores vêm sugerindo o uso de glicerol e outros alcoóis como matéria-prima para produção de bens de maior valor agregado e para geração de energia elétrica, através de células a combustível. Contudo, o sucesso dessas tecnologias de conversão depende do desenvolvimento de catalisadores mais eficientes. Nesse aspecto, abordagens teóricas se apresentam como ferramentas auxiliares, capazes de fornecer informações difíceis de serem acessadas experimentalmente e que são fundamentais para o projeto de materiais mais eficientes. Nesta tese, foram investigados, via teoria do funcional da densidade (DFT), o papel de defeitos de superfície e efeitos de tensão na adsorção de alcoóis como metanol, etanol e glicerol, sobre superfícies Pt(111) contendo defeitos e ligas de Pt3Ni(111). Para melhorar a descrição dos sistemas de adsorção, foi adicionada a correção de dispersão DFT-D3 à abordagem da DFT. Através da dinâmica molecular empregando o potencial ReaxFF, foram estudados os efeitos de temperatura sobre glicerol, em diversos níveis de recobrimento de superfície, interagindo com os substratos Pt3Ni(111). Os resultados mostram que o glicerol se liga através do oxigênio dos grupos hidróxi aos sítios top de metais de transição (TM), orientando sua cadeia carbônica quase que totalmente paralela à superfície. Os cálculos de energia de adsorção indicam que o glicerol interage mais fortemente com sítios de baixa coordenação, presentes em superfícies com defeitos, o que pode ser compreendido por meio do modelo da banda d. Além disso, a presença de múltiplos sítios de baixa coordenação favorece configurações onde o glicerol se liga à superfície por dois grupos hidróxi, um central e um terminal. Entretanto, existe uma clara preferência de alcoóis se ligarem a sítios de adsorção catiônicos, indicando que a influência de interações Coulombianas é um fator preponderante no processo de adsorção de alcoóis sobre TM. Análises de densidade eletrônica dos sistemas adsorvidos sugerem que a adsorção promove perturbações na densidade eletrônica dos alcoóis, como o deslocamento de densidade eletrônica das ligações C-O e O-H para a região de interação entre a molécula e o substrato, que estão associadas ao estiramento/enfraquecimento das ligações C-O e O-H observados através de análises estruturais. Os resultados DFT também demonstraram que a adição da correção de dispersão DFT-D3 melhorou a descrição das energias de adsorção e se mostrou essencial para reproduzir a tendência do crescimento da energia de adsorção com o tamanho molecular dos alcoóis, enquanto sua natureza atrativa promoveu a diminuição das distâncias atômicas entre alcoóis e substratos. O estudo de dinâmica molecular mostrou que a configuração de adsorção DFT se mantém apenas em temperaturas próximas de 0 K e que outras configurações são favorecidas a temperaturas mais altas. A presença de outras moléculas de glicerol promove, mediante o aquecimento do sistema, a formação de aglomerados de moléculas ligadas através de interações de hidrogênio, o que estabiliza as moléculas e, provavelmente, retarda seu processo de dessorção. Nos sistemas com maior densidade de moléculas, observou-se, ao final da simulação, a formação de fragmentos CH3OH-CHOH-CH2O- e átomos de H adsorvidos na superfície, indicando a quebra de ligações O-H do grupo hidróxi terminal. / Several researchers have been suggesting the use of glycerol and other alcohols as a feedstock to produce higher value-added goods and electricity through fuel cells. However, the success of these conversion technologies depends on the development of efficient catalysts. In this context, theoretical approaches are useful tools that are able to yield important insights that could not be easily obtained from experiments and are fundamental for the future design of more efficient materials. Hence, in this thesis, we investigated via density functional theory (DFT) the role of surface defects and strain effects on the adsorption of methanol, ethanol and glycerol on defected Pt(111) and Pt3Ni-based surfaces. To improve the description of the adsorbed systems, we added the van der Waals (vdW) correction DFT-D3 to the DFT approach. We also studied through molecular dynamics, employing the ReaxFF potential, the effects of temperature on the glycerol, considering different levels of surface coverage, interacting with the Pt3Ni(111) substrates. Our results show that the glycerol binds through the oxygen from a terminal hidroxi group to top sites of transition-metals (TM) with the carbon chain almost parallel to the surface. The calculations of adsorption energy indicate that glycerol interacts strongly with low-coordinated sites, such as those of surface defects, which can be rationalized through the d-band model. Furthermore, the presence of multiple low-coordinated sites was related with configurations where the glycerol binds to the substrates by two hidroxi groups, the central and a terminal one. However, there is a clear preference of the alcohols to bind on cationic adsorption sites, which indicates that the Coulomb interactions play a major role on the adsorption process of alcohols on TM. Electron density analyzes suggest that the adsorption promotes perturbations in the electronic density of the alcohols, such as a partial displacement of electron density from the C-O and O-H bonds to the region between the molecule and the substrate, which are related with the stretching/weakening of the C-O e O-H, as found in the structural analyzes. The DFT results also show that the addition of the DFT-D3 dispersion correction enhanced the adsorption energies and was essential to reproduce correctly the dependence of the binding energy with the molecule size, while its attractive nature promoted the decrease of the atomic distances between alcohols and substrates. The molecular dynamics showed that the glycerol DFT lowest energy adsorption configuration is maintained for temperatures close to 0 K whereas different configurations are favored in higher temperatures. In the presence of multiple glycerol molecules, the heating of the system promotes the formation of molecular clusters bound through hydrogen interactions, which stabilize the molecules and, probably, delay the desorption process. In the systems with higher molecular density, we found that CH3OH-CHOH-CH2O- fragments and H atoms are formed in the end of the simulation, which indicates that the breaking of O-H bonds from the terminal hidroxi groups is promoted.

<p>The aim of this thesis was to investigate amphiphilic molecules in aqueous solution. The work was divided into two parts. In the first part the effects of different counterions on phase behavior was investigated, while the second part concerns the 1-monooleoyl-rac-glycerol (MO)/n-octyl-β-D-glucoside (OG)/2H2O-system. </p><p>The effects of mixing monovalent and divalent counterions were studied for two surfactant systems, sodium/calcium octyl sulfate, and piperidine/piperazine octanesulfonate. It was found that mixing monovalent and divalent counterions resulted in a large decrease in cmc already at very low fractions of the divalent counterion. Moreover, the degree of counterion binding for piperidine in the piperidine/piperazine octanesulfonate system was much higher than predicted, probably due to the larger hydrophobic moiety of piperidine.</p><p>The effects of hydrophobic counterions were studied for eight alkylpyridinium octanesulfonates (APOS). The results were discussed in terms of packing constraints. The anomalous behavior of the 2H2O quadrupolar splittings in the lamellar phases was explained by the presence of two or more binding sites at the lamellae surface. </p><p>The MO/OG/water system was studied in general and the MO-rich cubic phases in particular. When mixing MO and OG it was found that OG-rich structures (micelles, hexagonal and cubic phase of space group Ia3d) could solubilize quite large amounts of MO, while the MO-rich cubic structures where considerable less tolerant towards the addition of OG. The micelles in the OG-rich L1 phase were found to remain rather small and discrete in the larger part of the L1 phase area, but at low water concentration and high MO content a bicontinuous structure was indicated. Only small fractions of OG was necessary to convert the MO-rich cubic Pn3m structure to an Ia3d structure, and upon further addition of OG a lamellar (La) phase formed. Since the larger part of the phase diagram contains a lamellar structure (present either as a single La phase or as a dispersion of lamellar particles together with other phases), the conclusion was that introducing OG in the MO structures, forces the MO bilayer to become more flat. Upon heating the cubic phases, structures with more negative curvature were formed. The transformation between the cubic structures required very little energy, and this resulted in the appearance of additional peaks in the diffractograms.</p>

The aim of this thesis was to investigate amphiphilic molecules in aqueous solution. The work was divided into two parts. In the first part the effects of different counterions on phase behavior was investigated, while the second part concerns the 1-monooleoyl-rac-glycerol (MO)/n-octyl-β-D-glucoside (OG)/2H2O-system. The effects of mixing monovalent and divalent counterions were studied for two surfactant systems, sodium/calcium octyl sulfate, and piperidine/piperazine octanesulfonate. It was found that mixing monovalent and divalent counterions resulted in a large decrease in cmc already at very low fractions of the divalent counterion. Moreover, the degree of counterion binding for piperidine in the piperidine/piperazine octanesulfonate system was much higher than predicted, probably due to the larger hydrophobic moiety of piperidine. The effects of hydrophobic counterions were studied for eight alkylpyridinium octanesulfonates (APOS). The results were discussed in terms of packing constraints. The anomalous behavior of the 2H2O quadrupolar splittings in the lamellar phases was explained by the presence of two or more binding sites at the lamellae surface. The MO/OG/water system was studied in general and the MO-rich cubic phases in particular. When mixing MO and OG it was found that OG-rich structures (micelles, hexagonal and cubic phase of space group Ia3d) could solubilize quite large amounts of MO, while the MO-rich cubic structures where considerable less tolerant towards the addition of OG. The micelles in the OG-rich L1 phase were found to remain rather small and discrete in the larger part of the L1 phase area, but at low water concentration and high MO content a bicontinuous structure was indicated. Only small fractions of OG was necessary to convert the MO-rich cubic Pn3m structure to an Ia3d structure, and upon further addition of OG a lamellar (La) phase formed. Since the larger part of the phase diagram contains a lamellar structure (present either as a single La phase or as a dispersion of lamellar particles together with other phases), the conclusion was that introducing OG in the MO structures, forces the MO bilayer to become more flat. Upon heating the cubic phases, structures with more negative curvature were formed. The transformation between the cubic structures required very little energy, and this resulted in the appearance of additional peaks in the diffractograms.

Στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή μελετάται η φωτοκαταλυτική διάσπαση του νερού προς παραγωγή υδρογόνου με χρήση πηγής που προσομοιώνει την ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκαν φωτοκαταλύτες είτε θειούχου καδμίου (CdS) σε συνδυασμό με θειούχα και θειώδη άλατα του νατρίου (Na2S-Na2SO3) είτε διοξειδίου του τιτανίου (TiO2) σε συνδυασμό με γλυκερόλη (C3O5(OH)3). Χρησιμοποιώντας φωτοκαταλύτη θειούχου καδμίου (CdS) εξετάστηκε η δυνατότητα παρασκευής σταθερών καταλυτών με i) διαφορετικό διαλύτη, ii) διαφορετικές πρόδρομες ενώσεις, και iii) με σύζευξη του CdS με ημιαγωγούς μεγαλύτερου ενεργειακού χάσματος, το θειούχο ψευδάργυρο (ZnS) ή/και το διοξείδιο του τιτανίου (TiO2), σε διάφορες αναλογίες σύνθεσης. Παρατηρήθηκε ότι η απόδοση του παραγόμενου καταλύτη εξαρτάται από τη μέθοδο παρασκευής του, και βελτιώνεται σημαντικά όταν το CdS συζευχθεί με το ZnS σε αναλογία CdS/ZnS (25-75). Επιπλέον αύξηση του ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου ελήφθη εναποθέτοντας 0.5% κ.β. Pt στην επιφάνεια του σύνθετου φωτοκαταλύτη CdS/ZnS (25-75). Η σύνθεση του CdS με TiO2 ή με TiO2 και ZnS και ταυτόχρονη εναπόθεση 0.5% κ.β., πλατίνας (0.5% Pt-CdS/TiO2, 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS/TiO2), οδηγεί και πάλι σε αύξηση του ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου χωρίς όμως να παρατηρείται σημαντική διαφοροποίηση σε σχέση με το ρυθμό που ελήφθη με φωτοκαταλύτη 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-75). Αντικατάσταση των συμβατικών θυσιαζόμενων ενώσεων (Na2S και Na2SO3) με αιθανόλη (1% κ.ο.), οδήγησε σε μηδενικό καταλυτικό ρυθμό στην περίπτωση των φωτοκαταλυτών 0.5%Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-70) και 0.5%Pt-CdS, ενώ στην περίπτωση των 0.5%Pt CdS/TiO2 (50-50) και 0.5%Pt CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1) ο ρυθμός μειώθηκε σημαντικά. Ταυτόχρονη χρήση θυσιαζόμενων ενώσεων (Na2SO3-Na2S και αιθανόλης) μόνο στην περίπτωση του 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1) οδηγεί σε διαδοχική δράση των δύο θυσιαζόμενων ενώσεων Χρησιμοποιώντας φωτοκαταλύτη διοξειδίου του τιτανίου ενισχυμένο με 0.5% κ.β. πλατίνα (0.5%Pt-TiO2) σε υδατικό αιώρημα παρουσία γλυκερόλης (C3O5(OH)3), πραγματοποιήθηκε συνδυασμός της φωτοκαταλυτικής διάσπασης του νερού και της φωτο-επαγόμενης οξείδωσης της οργανικής ένωσης υπό αναερόβιες συνθήκες. Με τον τρόπο αυτόν, το νερό ανάγεται για την παραγωγή Η2 ενώ η οργανική ένωση, που ενεργεί ως δότης ηλεκτρονίων, οξειδώνεται προς το CO2. Η παρουσία της γλυκερόλης στο διάλυμα οδηγεί παράλληλα σε σημαντική αύξηση του ρυθμού παραγωγής Η2, λόγω της επιπρόσθετης παραγωγής υδρογόνου (additional hydrogen, H2,add.), η οποία προέρχεται από τη διάσπαση της οργανικής ένωσης. Τα συνολικά παραγόμενα ποσά των H2,add. και CO2 έχουν αναλογία μορίων H2,add.:CO2 πρακτικά ίση με 7:3, η οποία αντιστοιχεί στην αντίδραση αναμόρφωσης της γλυκερόλης (C3H8O3 + 3H2O  3CO2 + 7H2). Τα αποτελέσματα που ελήφθησαν από σειρά πειραμάτων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν μεταβάλλοντας τις λειτουργικές παραμέτρους της αντίδρασης αναμόρφωσης της γλυκερόλης, έδειξαν ότι ο ρυθμός παραγωγής υδρογόνου εξαρτάται, κυρίως, από τη συγκέντρωση της γλυκερόλης και, σε μικρότερο βαθμό, από το είδος και τη φόρτιση του μετάλλου, το pH, τη θερμοκρασία του διαλύματος και τη συγκέντρωση του καταλύτη στο αιώρημα. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η μελέτη της επίδρασης της φύσης του μετάλλου (0,5%κ.β., Pt, Pd, Ru, Rh, Ag), έδειξε ότι ο μέγιστος ρυθμός παραγωγής υδρογόνου λαμβάνεται με χρήση Pt, καθώς η σειρά ενεργότητας των μετάλλων μεταβάλλεται ως εξής, Pt>Pd>Ru>Rh>Ag. Η επίδραση της φόρτισης σε μέταλλο (Pt) στο ρυθμό παραγωγής υδρογόνου, σε ένα εύρος τιμών από 0,05 έως 5% κ.β Pt, έδειξε ότι ο μέγιστος ρυθμός παραγωγής υδρογόνου αυξάνει με αύξηση της φόρτισης σε μέταλλο στην περιοχή 0,05-0,5% κ.β Pt, ενώ για φορτίσεις μεγαλύτερες του 2% κ.β Pt σημειώνεται μείωση του ρυθμού. Η αύξηση της συγκέντρωσης του καταλύτη (0,5%Pt/TiO2) στο αιώρημα από 0,6 g/L έως 2,66 g/L οδηγεί σε σταδιακή αύξηση και τελικά σταθεροποίηση του μέγιστου ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου. Ο ρυθμός της αντίδρασης αυξάνει σε βασικά διαλύματα, σε σχέση με το ρυθμό που μετρήθηκε σε φυσικό pH, και μειώνεται σε όξινα διαλύματα. Επιπλέον, αύξηση του ρυθμού επιτυγχάνεται με αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας από τους 40oC στους 60oC, ενώ περαιτέρω αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας στους 80oC δεν οδηγεί σε σημαντική μεταβολή του ρυθμού. Η σημαντικότερη παράμετρος που επηρεάζει το ρυθμό παραγωγής υδρογόνου είναι η συγκέντρωση της γλυκερόλης στο αιώρημα. Αύξηση της αρχικής συγκέντρωσης της γλυκερόλης στο αιώρημα από 10-4 έως 100 mol L-1 οδηγεί σε αύξηση του μέγιστου ρυθμού παραγωγής υδρογόνου, το οποίο αυξάνεται μονοτονικά με το λογάριθμο της συγκέντρωσης της γλυκερόλης έως και δύο τάξεις μεγέθους. Αντίστοιχα πειράματα επίδρασης της συγκέντρωσης της γλυκερόλης και της μάζας του φωτοκαταλύτη στο αιώρημα, όπως και της % φόρτισης της πλατίνας στην επιφάνεια του 0,5%Pt/TiO2, πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε ξεχωριστό αντιδραστήρα. Ο αντιδραστήρας αυτός περιέχει εσωτερικά λαμπτήρα ισχύος 4W, ο οποίος προσομοιώνει την υπεριώδη ακτινοβολία και εκπέμπει φωτόνια στα 365nm. Σε κάθε περίπτωση, τα αποτελέσματα είναι ποιοτικά όμοια με αυτά που ελήφθησαν με ορατή ακτινοβολία. Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι με χρήση υπεριώδους ακτινοβολίας λαμβάνονται μεγαλύτεροι καταλυτικοί ρυθμοί σε σχέση με αυτούς που ελήφθησαν με ορατή ακτινοβολία. Τα αποτελέσματα πειραμάτων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν για τον προσδιορισμό των ενδιάμεσων και τελικών προϊόντων (αέριων ή/και υγρών) της αντίδραση αναμόρφωσης της γλυκερόλης υδατικού αιωρήματος συγκέντρωσης 17 mM, έδειξαν ότι κύριο ενδιάμεσο προϊόν της αντίδρασης είναι η μεθανόλη, ενώ ταυτόχρονα ανιχνεύθηκαν σημαντικά μικρότερες ποσότητες οξικού οξέος. Ως τελικά προϊόντα ανιχνεύθηκαν μόνο Η2 και CO2, τα οποία ποσοτικά βρίσκονται σε πλήρη συμφωνία με αυτά που αναμένονται από τη στοιχειομετρία της αντίδρασης. Μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε για τη διερεύνηση της μη στοιχειομετρικής έκλυσης οξυγόνου απουσία και παρουσία γλυκερόλης συγκέντρωσης 0.0-1.36 mM. Τα αποτελέσματα οδηγούν στο συμπέρασμα ότι το φωτοπαραγόμενο οξυγόνο είτε παραμένει δεσμευμένο στην επιφάνεια του φωτοκαταλύτη με τη μορφή περοξοτιτανικών συμπλόκων ή οξειδίων του τιτανίου, είτε απελευθερώνεται στο διάλυμα με τη μορφή Η2Ο2. Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις η ποσότητα των υπεροξειδικών ειδών στην επιφάνεια του φωτοκαταλύτη τείνει προς μια οριακή τιμή (~20 μmol), η οποία πιθανότατα αντιστοιχεί στη μέγιστη δυνατή κάλυψη του TiO2 με υπεροξειδικά είδη. Ποιοτικά όμοια αποτελέσματα ελήφθησαν και από αντίστοιχα πειράματα που έγιναν με χρήση γλυκόζης συγκέντρωσης 0.0-0.417mM. Η κβαντική απόδοση (quantum yield) των φωτο-επαγόμενων αντιδράσεων αναμόρφωσης μετρήθηκε σε ξεχωριστό φωτοαντιδραστηρα με χρήση λαμπτήρα “black light” που εκπέμπει στα 365 nm. Διαπιστώθηκε ότι κβαντική απόδοση από 1,8% που ελήφθη για το καθαρό νερό, αυξάνεται σε 70%, με αιώρημα γλυκερόλης συγκέντρωσης 1Μ. Τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την αποικοδόμηση ρύπων σε θερμοκρασία δωματίου και ατμοσφαιρική πίεση, με ταυτόχρονη παραγωγή υδρογόνου έχοντας υψηλή απόδοση. / In the present study a detailed investigation has been carried out in an attempt to obtain photocatalytic hydrogen production with simulated the solar irradiation. The employed photocatalysts were either cadmium sulfide (CdS) in the presence of sodium sulfide and sulfide salts (Na2S-Na2SO3) or titanium dioxide (TiO2) in the presence of glycerol (C3O5(OH)3). Using cadmium sulfide (CdS) as phototcatalyst, the possibility of producing stabilized photocatalysts was investigated with i) various solvents, ii) various precursors and iii) combined with wide band gap photocatalysts, like zinc sulphide (ZnS) or/and titanium dioxide (TiO2), with different ratio. Results revealed that CdS preparation process significantly influences the photocatalytic effectiveness and increase the hydrogen production. Increase in hydrogen production can be achieved by coupling CdS with ZnS in a ratio of CdS/ZnS (25-75). A further increase in the rate of hydrogen production was observed by dispersion of Pt (0.5 wt %) in the surface of the compined photocatalyst, CdS/ZnS (25-75). Additionally, as experimental results indicated, increase in hydrogen production can be achieved by coupling CdS with TiO2 (0.5% Pt-CdS/TiO2) or alternatively by mixing CdS with TiO2 and ZnS (0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS/TiO2). In both cases, the obtained rates of hydrogen production were not much different with that obtained with the use of 0.5% Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-75). Replacing the conventional sacrificial agents (Na2S-Na2SO3) with ethanol (1% v/v), the rates of hydrogen production became zero, in the case of photocatalysts 0.5%Pt-CdS/ZnS (25-70) and 0.5%Pt-CdS or significantly decreased, in the case of photocatalysts 0.5%Pt CdS/TiO2 (50-50) and 0.5%Pt CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1). Simultaneous use of sacrificial agents with 1% v/v ethanol (Na2SO3-Na2S and 1% ethanol), results in successive action of the two sacrificial agents, only for the case of 0.5%Pt CdS/ZnS/TiO2 ((25-75):1). Using titanium dioxide (TiO2), as phototcatalyst in the presence of glycerol (C3O5(OH)3), resulted both in photocatalytic splitting of water and light-induced oxidation of organic substrates into a single process, that takes place at ambient conditions in the absence of gas-phase oxygen. According to the proposed mechanism, the water is reduced to hydrogen, while the organic compound acts as electron donor and gradually oxidized towards to carbon dioxide (CO2). Irradiation of aqueous glycerol, results in notably strong evolution of H2, because of the additional production of hydrogen (additional hydrogen, H2, add.), which comes from the splitting of glycerol. The total amounts of H2,add. and CO2 are practically equal to the molar ratio H2,add..:CO2 7:3, which corresponds in the reaction of reforming (C3H8O3 + 3H2O  3CO2 + 7H2). The results of experiments were conducted in order to investigate the effects of operating parameters on the rate of hydrogen production, showed that the rate of hydrogen production depends strongly on glycerol concentration and, to a lesser extent, on the kind of metal loading, on solution pH and temperature and the concentration of photocatalyst in solution. Specifically, experiments of the effectiveness of the nature of the dispersed metal on catalytic performance showed that the maximum rate of hydrogen production is obtained with the use of Pt, as efficiency of the metal doped TiO2 is in the order of Pt > Pd > Ru >Rh >Ag. The effect of metal loading (Pt) on the reaction rate has been investigated in the range of 0.0-5.0 wt.%, and showed that the maximum rate of hydrogen production increased with increasing Pt loading from 0.05 to 0.5 wt% but decreased for load greater than 2% wt. Pt. Increase the catalyst concentration (0,5%Pt/TiO2) in the solution in the range of 0,6 g/L until 2,66 g/L leads to progressive increase on the reaction rate, which is finally stabilized on the biggest rate of hydrogen production. The rate of hydrogen evolution is higher at neutral or basic solutions, compared to acidic solutions and increased with increasing temperature from 40oC to 60-80oC (Fig. 3). Further increase of solution temperature up to 80oC did not induce significant changes on the rate. The most important parameter, which mainly determines the rate of hydrogen production, is glycerol concentration (C) in solution. In particular, increasing the glycerol concentration (C) in solution, in the range of 10-4 until 100 mol L-1, results in a linear increase of the maximum rate of hydrogen production with logCglyc. The maximum rate increased about two orders of magnitude with increase of Cglyc from zero to 1M. Corresponding experiments of effect of glycerol, photocatalyst concentration in the suspension and % Pt loading in the surface of 0.5%Pt/TiO2 were conducted in separate reactor. The photo-reactor includes the lamp, which simulates UV irradiation emitting at 365 nm. In all cases, the results were qualitatively similar with those obtained with the use of UV-Vis irradiation. The only difference was that with UV irradiation bigger rates of hydrogen production are obtained. Experiments designed with the purpose to define the formation of reaction’s intermediates and final products (gas or/and liquid), in glycerol solution concentration 17 mM, indicated that methanol is the main reaction intermediate, small amounts of acetic was also detected in the liquid phase. The final products were only H2 and CO2, which are in great agreement with those predicted from the stoichiometry of the reforming reaction. The investigation of slurries for the non-stoichiometric oxygen production, in the presence or in the absent of glycerol (concentration 0.0-1.36 mM), indicated that photogenerated oxygen is bound at the catalyst surface as peroxotitanate complexes or titanoxide, or is released in the solution as Η2Ο2. In all cases, the quantity of peroxide species at the catalyst’s surface tends to a marginal value (~20 μmol), which corresponds to the possibility of maximum cover of TiO2. Qualitatively similar results were obtained with the use of glucose slurries in concentration 0.0-0.417mM. The quantum yield (QY) of hydrogen evolution was measured in the photoreactor with the UV lamp emitting at 365 nm. It is observed that quantum yield increased from 1.8%, for pure water to 70%, for glycerol solution concentration 1M. The results of my thesis can be used for waste degradation in ambient conditions with simultaneous production of hydrogen and high efficiency.