This dissertation presents the novel creation of a surface relief fiber Bragg grating on the flat surface of a D-shaped optical fiber. In order to produce an efficient surface relief grating the grating must be etched into the surface of the glass fiber close to the core. A short etch that removes the cladding above the core is performed in order to decrease the core-to-flat distance and allow the light to interact with the grating on the flat surface. Due to the unique D-shape of the optical fiber the mechanical integrity of the fiber remains high even after the fabrication process. For traditional fiber Bragg gratings the index modulation occurs in the core of the optical fiber. While this method can produce highly reflective gratings they are not well suited for many sensing applications. For example, the operating temperature range is limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius before the index modulation returns to a more uniform index profile. Also because the gratings are created in the core of the fiber, interaction with the surrounding environment is limited. The surface relief fiber Bragg grating created for this work overcomes some of the sensing challenges of traditional gratings. The major accomplishments of this dissertation show a dramatic increase in operating temperature to over 1000 degrees Celsius, the ability to measure multi-dimensional bend, the ability to measure material changes around the fiber such as chemical concentration, and the ability to use a Vernier effect to dramatically increase the sensors sensitivity. In addition to the sensing applications of this work a more thorough understanding of the reflection and transmission properties of the surface relief grating is also presented. Implementation of the transfer matrix method for simulation of the gratings is also shown to be a fast and accurate modeling tool for predicting the grating response.

Ionic self-assembled multilayers (ISAMs) can be formed by alternately dipping a substrate in anionic and cationic polyelectrolytes. Each immersion deposits a monolayer via electrostatic attraction, allowing for nanometer-scale control over film thickness. Additionally, ISAM films can be applied to arbitrary substrate geometries and can easily incorporate a variety of polymers and nanoscale organic or inorganic inclusions. The ISAM technique was used to tune and functionalize a rapid, sensitive fiber optic biosensor for textit{Brucella}, a family of bacteria that are detrimental to livestock and can also infect humans. The sensor was based on a turn-around point long period fiber grating (TAP-LPG). Unlike conventional LPGs, in which the attenuation peaks shift wavelength in response to environmental changes, TAP-LPGs have a highly sensitive single wavelength peak with variable attenuation. ISAMs were applied to a TAP-LPG to tune it to maximum sensitivity and to facilitate cross-linking of receptor molecules. Biotin and streptavidin were used to attach biotinylated hybridization probes specific to distinct species of textit{Brucella}. The sensor was then exposed to lysed cell cultures and tissue samples in order to evaluate its performance. The best results were obtained when using samples from textit{Brucella} infected mice, which produced a transmission change of 6.0 ± 1.4% for positive controls and 0.5 ± 2.0% for negative controls. While the sensor was able to distinguish between positive and negative samples, the relatively short dynamic range of the available fiber limited its performance. Attempts to fabricate new TAP-LPGs using a CO2 laser were unsuccessful due to poor laser stability. A second application of the ISAM technique was as a source of second-harmonic generation (SHG). SHG is a nonlinear optical process in which light is instantaneously converted to half its wavelength in the presence of intense electric fields. Localized surface plasmons (LSPs) in metal nanoparticles produce strong electric field enhancements, especially at sharp tips and edges, that can be used to increase SHG. Colloidally grown silver nanoprisms were deposited onto nonlinear ISAM films and conversion of 1064 nm Nd:YAG radiation to its 532 nm second-harmonic was observed. Little enhancement was observed when using nanoprisms with LSP resonance near 1064 nm due to their large size and low concentration. When using shorter wavelength nanoprisms, enhancements of up to 35 times were observed when they were applied by immersion, and up to 1380 times when concentrated nanoprisms were applied via dropcasting at high enough densities to broaden their extinction peak towards the excitation wavelength. A maximum enhancement of 2368 times was obtained when concentrated silver nanoprisms with LSP resonance around 900 nm were spincast with an additional layer of PCBS. / Doctor of Philosophy / Polyelectrolytes are long molecules composed of chains of charged monomers. When a substrate with a net surface charge is dipped into an oppositely charged polyelectrolyte solution, a single layer of molecules will be electrostatically deposited onto the substrate. Because the surface charge now appears to match the charge of the solution, no further deposition occurs. However, the process can be repeated by rinsing the substrate and immersing in a solution with the opposite charge. This technique forms ionic self-assembled multilayers (ISAMs), which can be assembled with nanometer-level control over thickness. The flexibility of polymer chemistry allows ISAMs to be formed from polyelectrolytes with a wide variety of properties. Additionally, the technique can easily incorporate other nanoscale materials, such as nanoparticles, clay platelets, and biological molecules, and has been investigated for applications ranging from dye-sensitized organic solar cells to drug delivery and medical implant coatings. This dissertation presents two applications of ISAM films. In one, ISAM films were used to tune and functionalize an optical biosensor for Brucella. Brucellosis primarily infects livestock, in which it causes significant reproductive problems leading to economic losses, but can also cause flu-like symptoms and more serious complications in humans. A rapid, sensitive test for Brucella is required to monitor herds and adjacent wild carriers, such as elk and bison. Optical biosensors, which operate by detecting changes due to the interaction between light and the stimulus, could satisfy this need. Long period fiber gratings (LPGs) are periodic modulations induced in the core of an optical fiber that cause transmitted light to be scattered at a resonant wavelength, resulting in attenuation. Conventional LPGs respond to changes in strain, temperature, or external refractive index by shifting their resonant wavelength. When special conditions are met, an LPG may exhibit a turn-around point (TAP), where dual peaks coalesce into a single peak with a constant wavelength but variable attenuation depth. TAP-LPGs are more sensitive than ordinary LPGs, and could be developed into inexpensive sensors with single-wavelength light sources and detectors. In this work, ISAMs were deposited onto an LPG to tune it near its TAP. Segments of single-stranded DNA, called hybridization probes, that were specific to individual species of Brucella were attached to the ISAM film before the sensor was exposed to lysed bacterial cultures. It was found that the sensor could distinguish between Brucella and other types of bacteria, but was less successful at distinguishing between Brucella species. The project was limited by the available TAP-LPGs, which had less dynamic range than those used in prior work by this group. Attempts were made to establish a new supply of TAP-LPGs by fabrication with a CO2 laser, but these efforts were unsuccessful due to poor laser stability. The second project discussed in this dissertation investigated ISAM films as a source of second-harmonic generation (SHG), a nonlinear optical process in which light is converted to half its fundamental wavelength in the presence of intense electric fields. Nonlinear ISAMs were constructed by choosing a polyelectrolyte with a hyperpolarizable side group in which SHG can occur. The SHG efficiency was increased by factors of several hundred to several thousand by the addition of silver nanoprisms. Metal nanoparticles can produce strong electric field enhancements, especially at their tips and edges, when incident light causes resonant collective oscillations in their electrons called localized surface plasmons (LSPs). It was found that while silver nanoprisms whose LSP resonant wavelength matched the fundamental wavelength were too dilute to produce noticeable enhancement, better results could be obtained by depositing shorter wavelength nanoprisms at sufficient density to broaden their extinction peak via interparticle interactions. The best enhancement observed was for a sample where concentrated silver nanoprisms with LSP resonance around 900 nm were dropcast onto an ISAM film and coated with an additional polymer layer, resulting in 2368 times more SHG than the plain ISAM film.

Volume phase holographic (VPH) gratings have been designed for use in many areas of science and technology such as optical communication, medical imaging, spectroscopy and astronomy. The goal of this dissertation is to design a volume phase holographic grating that provides diffraction efficiencies of at least 70% for the entire visible wavelengths and higher than 90% for red, green, and blue light when the incident light is unpolarized. First, the complete design, simulation and optimization of the volume hologram are presented. The optimization is done using a Monte Carlo analysis to solve for the index modulation needed to provide higher diffraction efficiencies. The solutions are determined by solving the diffraction efficiency equations determined by Kogelnik's two wave coupled-wave theory. The hologram is further optimized using the rigorous coupled-wave analysis to correct for effects of absorption omitted by Kogelnik's method. Second, the fabrication or recording process of the volume hologram is described in detail. The active region of the volume hologram is created by interference of two coherent beams within the thin film. Third, the experimental set up and measurement of some properties including the diffraction efficiencies of the volume hologram, and the thickness of the active region are conducted. Fourth, the polarimetric response of the volume hologram is investigated. The polarization study is developed to provide insight into the effect of the refractive index modulation onto the polarization state and diffraction efficiency of incident light.

This thesis proposes a metallic hole array of a rectangular converging-diverging channel (RCDC) shape with extraordinary transmission. We use a three-dimensional (3D) finite element method to analyze the transmission characteristics of two-dimensional metallic hole arrays (2D-MHA) with RCDC. For a straight channel MHA, when the aperture size is reduced, the transmission peaks have a blue-shift. The same result is observed for a smaller gap throat for the RCDC structure. For the rectangular holes with a high length-width ratio, a similar blue-shift in the transmission peaks as well as a narrower full width at half maximum (FWHM) are observed. The asymmetry from the rectangular shape gives this structure high selectivity for light with different polarizations. Furthermore, the RCDC shape gives extra degrees of geometrical variables to 2D-MHA for tuning the location of the transmission peak and FWHM. The tunable transmission property of this structure shows promise for applications in tunable filters, photonic circuits, and biosensors. / text

The challenge for lithography today is to continue the reduction of feature size whilst facing severe theoretical and practical limitations. In 2006 Rajesh Menon and Hank Smith proposed a new lithography system named absorbance modulation optical lithography (AMOL) [Menon 2006]. AMOL proposed replacing the normal metal mask of a lithography system with an absorbance modulation layer (AML), made from a photochromic material. This allows, through the competition between two incident wavelengths, the creation of an adaptive absorbance mask. The AML allows intimate contact to an underlying resist and hence the optical near-field may be used to create sub-diffraction limited exposures. The aim of this thesis is to model AMOL and demonstrate the abilities and the limits of the system, particularly focusing on sub-diffraction limited imaging. This thesis describes the construction of a vector electromagnetic simulation to explore the idea and performance of AMOL, and an exploration of the ability of AMOL to propagate sub-diffraction limited images into a photoresist. A finite element method (FEM) model was constructed to simulate the formation of apertures in the AML and light transmission through the system. Three major areas of interest were explored in this thesis; the effect of polarisation on imaging, using a plasmonic reflector layers (PRLs) to improve the depth of focus (DOF), and introducing a superlens to AMOL. Investigations of polarisation demonstrated strong preference for a transverse magnetic (TM) polarised exposing wavelength for near-field exposures. Associated with polarisation, and supporting work with absorbance gratings, the importance of the material parameters of the AML in allowing sub-diffraction limited exposures was discussed. It was also noted that, in common with all near-field systems, the depth of focus (DOF) was poor, worse than comparable metal systems. This thesis also demonstrates that the introduction of a PRL can improve the DOF and process latitude for resist thicknesses up to 60 nm and, although performance was reduced when using a silver PRL, the substantial improvements to the DOF and process latitude make a PRL valuable for an AMOL system. This thesis also models the superlens to an AMOL system, which theoretically allows propagation of the image in the near-field. It is demonstrated that the superlens can project an AMOL image into an underlying resist, but that this image is degraded, especially for thick and non-ideal superlenses. The superlens does have a second useful effect, as it can act as a dichroic filter; decreasing the intensity ratio in the resist by a factor of ten, overcoming issues of resist sensitivity. The superlens can allow image projection and filtering with AMOL, however improvements to the available superlens materials or changes to the AML will be needed to avoid image deterioration. This thesis has developed the first full-vector model of an absorbance modulation optical lithography (AMOL) system. This model has been used to increase the understanding of the complex effects that go into the creation of sub-diffraction limited features with AMOL. In particular the model has been used to investigate polarisation, PRLs and superlenses in AMOL. This thesis demonstrates the ability of AMOL to create narrow apertures and sub-diffraction limited exposures in a photoresist, and describes the limitations of AMOL, including material parameters and DOF. AMOL is a new and interesting lithography technique; this thesis simulates the abilities and challenges of sub-diffraction lithography using an AMOL system.

Quarter-wave retarders (QWR) that employ total internal reflection (TIR) and interference of light in a transparent thin-film coating at the base of a prism are presented. Explicit equations that guide the optimal design are provided. The optimal refractive index and normalized thickness of QWR coatings on glass and ZnS prisms are determined as functions of the internal angle of incidence from 45o to 75o. An achromatic QWR that uses an Si3N4- coated N-BK10-Schott glass prism is also presented with retardance error of 3o over the 400-600 nm wavelength range. An iterative procedure for the design of a polarizing beam splitter (PBS) that uses a form-birefringent, subwavelength-structured, one-dimensional photonic-crystal layer (SWS 1-D PCL) embedded in a high-index cubical prism is presented. The PBS is based on index matching and total transmission for the p polarization and total internal reflection for the s polarization at the prism-PCL interface at a 45o angle of incidence. A high extinction ratio in reflection ( 50 dB) over the 4-12 μm IR spectral range is achieved using a SWS 1-D PCL of ZnTe embedded in a ZnS cube within an external field of view (FOV) of ±6.6o and in the presence of grating filling factor errors of up to ±10%. Comparable results, but with a wider field of view, are also obtained with a Ge PCL embedded in a Si prism. A design for visible spectrum (553–713 nm) PBS SWS 1-D PCL of ZnTe embedded in a ZnS cube is also presented. The PBS shows a FOV of ±7o. A circular polarizing beam splitter (CPBS) with equal throughput for p and s polarization using SWS 1-D PCL embedded in a high-index cubical prism is introduced. A dual QWR in transmission and reflection with 50–50% CPBS is designed using the PCL. Such a CPBS shows large deviation from the design point as a result of small changes in the design parameters; e.g. a change of 10% in the filling factor results in 12o shift from the 90o phase shift between p and s polarizations, which limits the practical utility of the device.

High-order wavefront correction is not only beneficial for high-contrast imaging, but also spectroscopy. The size of a spectrograph can be decoupled from the size of the telescope aperture by moving to the diffraction limit which has strong implications for ELT based instrument design. Here we present the construction and characterization of an extremely efficient single-mode fiber feed behind an extreme adaptive optics system (SCExAO). We show that this feed can indeed be utilized to great success by photonic-based spectrographs. We present metrics to quantify the system performance and some preliminary spectra delivered by the compact spectrograph.

Neste trabalho foram estudados os fenômenos fotoinduzidos apresentados pelos filmes oxisulfetos de composição: 90% GeS2 + 10% Ga2 O3. Os filmes foram depositados em substrato de borosilicato pela técnica de evaporação por feixe de elétrons. A partir dos espectros de transmissão, a energia do bandgap, o índice de refração e a espessura foram determinados por diferentes métodos de análise. Para determinar as condições que otimizamos o efeito da fotoexpansão, as amostras foram expostas à radiação UV com energia acima do bandgap (3,5 eV), variando a densidade de potência (7,1 - 47,2 mW/mm2), tempo de exposição (30 180 min) e a espessura do filme (0,37 4,80 m). As áreas expostas foram analisadas usando um perfilômetro e valores de fotoexpansões variando de 0,03 a 0,16 m foram obtidos, cujo valor máximo foi encontrado para um filme com 1,80 m de espessura após iluminação com 24,3 mW/mm2 durante duas horas. Medidas da borda de absorção óptica revelaram um deslocamento para menores comprimentos de onda após a iluminação. O efeito de fotoclareamento foi acompanhado por uma diminuição do índice de refração, medido pela técnica de acoplamento de prisma. Os resultados revelaram a influência do oxigênio incorporado na matriz vítrea quando comparado ao Ga10Ge25S65. Consideramos que as mudanças fotoinduzidas são causadas por mudanças estruturais, como pôde ser verificado por medidas de espalhamento Raman nas configurações HH e HV. A dependência dos espectros Raman com a polarização da luz, observada em filmes iluminados e não-iluminados, é uma evidência direta para a ocorrência de importantes mudanças estruturais causadas por irradiação óptica, principalmente nas ligações Ge-S. As composições químicas foram determinadas por EDX e indicaram um aumento de oxigênio na superfície iluminada que pode estar associado ao aumento das ligações Ga-O-Ga. Como aplicação destes fenômenos fotoinduzidos, a fotoexpansão foi usada para a produção de redes de difração. As medidas de eficiência de difração e as imagens de microscopia de força atômica demonstraram que a fotoexpansão cria uma rede de relevo na superfície do vidro. / Photoexpansion and photobleaching effects were observed in 90% GeS2 + 10% Ga2O3 films. The films were deposited onto borosilicate substrates by electron beam evaporation technique. From transmission spectra, their bandgap energy, refractive index and thickness were determined by different analysis methods. To evaluate the photoinduced effects and find the optimal conditions to get the largest photoexpansion, the samples were exposed above bandgap light (~ 351 nm), varying power density (7.1- 47.2 mW/mm2), exposure time (30 120 min) and film thickness (0.37 4.80 m). The exposed areas were analyzed using profilemeter and photoexpansions from 0.03 to 0.16 m were obtained, whose maximum value was found for a 1.80 m thick film after 24.3 mW/mm2 illumination during 120 min. Fractional expansion (_V/V) from 8% to 30% was obtained and optical absorption edge measurements revealed a blue shift after illumination. This photobleaching was accompanied by a decrease in refractive index, as measured with the prism-coupling technique. The results reveal the influence of incorporated oxygen in the glass matrix when compared with Ga10Ge25S65 [1]. The chemical compositions were measured using an energy dispersive analyzer (EDX) and no significant difference could be observed between the compositions of illuminated and nonilluminated samples. So, we supposed that the photoinduced changes are caused by photostructural changes as well observed with Raman-scattering measurements in HH and HV configurations. The dependence of Raman spectra with the polarization of the light, observed in illuminated and non-illuminated films, is a direct evidence for the occurrence of important structural changes in local bonding configuration caused by optical irradiation. As application of the induced phenomenon, photoexpansion effect has been used to produce diffraction gratings. Atomic microscopy images and diffraction efficiency data indicate that photoexpansion leads to relief gating on the glass surface.

Ao longo dos últimos anos, redes de Bragg em fibras ópticas (FBG, do inglês Fiber Bragg Gratings) vêm sendo frequentemente utilizadas como sensores de deformação e de temperatura. O problema da indistinguibilidade entre esses dois parâmetros físicos, presente durante medidas realizadas por esse tipo de sensor, tem sido bem resolvido com o uso de duas FBGs com comprimentos de onda distintos. Muito embora esse artifício tenha apresentado bons resultados, ele também oferece algumas desvantagens, sendo uma delas a necessidade de duas fontes de luz para diferentes comprimentos de onda. Em virtude disto, este trabalho apresenta um sistema capaz de realizar medidas de temperatura e deformação, simultaneamente, utilizando apenas uma fonte de luz. O método baseia-se na inscrição de duas redes de Bragg com comprimentos de onda próximos (no caso, 810 e 860 nm) na mesma posição da fibra óptica. Apesar de a separação entre os comprimentos de onda das FBGs ser aparentemente pequena (cerca de 50 nm), o sistema respondeu precisamente a variações de deformação e temperatura. Dessa forma, a utilização de apenas uma fonte de luz no sistema é corretamente justificada, uma vez que, com essa alteração, o custo do sistema é substancialmente reduzido. Ademais, o uso de comprimentos de onda em torno de 800 nm também barateia o sistema, pois os CCDs usados neste intervalo espectral são menos onerosos do que aqueles tradicionalmente usados em comprimentos de onda de comunicações ópticas (1,55 μm). / In recent years, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) have been frequently used as strain and temperature sensors. Several studies have tackled the problem of distinguishing between these two physical parameters using a dual-wavelength sensor. Although these sensors have shown good results, they have a few drawbacks, one of them being the need for two light sources with different wavelengths. We present an approach for simultaneous strain and temperature sensing which uses only one light source. The method relies on writing FBGs with nearby wavelengths (for instance, at 810 and 860 nm) at the same section of the fiber. Even though the Bragg wavelengths are separated by just a few nanometers (about 50 nm), it is possible to accurately measure variations in strain and temperature. One of the major advantages of this approach is the use of a unique light source, what reduces substantially the system cost. Another advantage is the lower cost of array detectors at 800 nm when compared to those of telecom wavelengths (1,55 μm).

Pour accélérer des ions/protons il est possible d'utiliser une impulsion laser de courte durée temporelle (quelques dizaines de femtosecondes) focalisée sur quelques micromètres sur une cible solide (aluminium, carbone, plastique...). L'intensité du champ électromagnétique atteinte sur cible (> 1018 W.cm-2) nous permet de former un plasma chaud et dense. La dynamique des électrons de ce plasma génère des champs électriques intenses aux interfaces plasma-vide par séparation de charge. Ce champ électrique est alors responsable de l'accélération des ions situés sur la couche superficielle des cibles où se sont déposés des polluants organiques (dont des protons). Ce mécanisme d'accélération connu sous le nom de Target Normal Sheath Acceleration (TNSA), a constitué l'objet des travaux exposés dans cette thèse.Nos efforts au cours des différentes campagnes expérimentales se sont concentrés sur l'augmentation de l'énergie maximale des protons. En effet, les applications potentielles des particules de hautes énergies requièrent des énergies de l'ordre de la centaine de MeV. Pour ce faire, nous avons étudié différentes configurations permettant l'augmentation du couplage entre une impulsion laser et un plasma, ceci afin de transmettre avec le meilleur rendement possible, l'énergie du laser aux ions accélérés. C'est principalement en utilisant des configurations particulières de cibles (cibles avec microsphères, réseaux, cibles en mousses) que nous avons procédé. Des expériences utilisant une pré-impulsion comme contrôle de l'expansion du plasma ont également été réalisée. Du point de vue des applications et utilisations des ions accélérés, une étude des matériaux de fluorescence (CdWO4) a été menée dont le but était d'explorer le dépôt d'énergie des ions dans la matière, à des débits de flux jusqu'alors inaccessible avec les accélérateurs conventionnels. / Accelerating ions/protons can be done using short laser pulse (few femtoseconds) focused on few micrometers area on solid target (carbon, aluminum, plastic...). The electromagnetic field intensity reached on target (1019 W.cm-2) allows us to turn the solid into a hot dense plasma. The dynamic motion of the electrons is responsible for the creation of intense static electric field at the plasma boundaries. These electric fields accelerate organic pollutants (including protons) located at the boundaries. This acceleration mechanism known as the Target Normal Sheath Acceleration (TNSA) has been the topic of the research presented in this thesis.The goal of this work has been to study the acceleration mechanism and to increase the maximal ion energy achievable. Indeed, societal application such as proton therapy requires proton energy up to few hundreds of MeV. To proceed, we have studied different target configurations allowing us to increase the laser plasma coupling and to transfer as much energy as possible to ions (target with microspheres deposit, foam target, grating). Different experiments have also dealt with generating a pre-plasma on the target surface thanks to a pre-pulse. On the application side, fluorescent material such as CdWO4 has been studied under high flux rate of protons. These high flux rates have been, up to now, beyond the conventional accelerators capabilities.