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Changing climates, human population growth, and aging infrastructure threaten the availability and quality of one of life's most vital resources, water. Hydrological ecosystem services are goods and benefits derived from freshwater that include flood damage mitigation, water for agricultural and commercial use, swimmable and navigable waters, and healthy aquatic habitats. Using computer algorithms inspired by biological and ecological processes known as evolutionary algorithms and on-site stormwater management practices such structural best management practices (BMPs) and green stormwater infrastructure (GSI), this research aims to maximize hydrological ecosystem services at the watershed-scale in both agricultural and urban environments by integrating these algorithms with the watershed model Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), and the hydraulic model Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). This dissertation first develops an information theoretic approach to global sensitivity analysis for distributed models, demonstrated using SWAT, and later uses the sensitive model parameters in a multi-objective automatic calibration scheme using multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO). Multiple alternative watershed-scale BMP designs (parallel terraces, detention/infiltration ponds, field borders, and grade stabilization structures) that help minimize peak runoff and annual sediment yield were simultaneously identified using SWAT coupled with the species conserving genetic algorithm (SCGA). Finally, using recently developed economic estimates called triple bottom line (TBL) accounting, watershed-scale GSI designs are identified that reduce combined sewer overflow volumes in an urban setting while maximizing the net benefit across social, economic, and environmental categories. Overall, this dissertation research provides useful and relevant computer-based tools for water resources planners and managers interested in maximizing hydrological ecosystem services benefits.

Bioretention basins are a stormwater control method implemented in urban areas to curtail runoff and pollution; however, recent studies show inconsistent nitrate (NO3-) removal, and in many cases average nitrate concentrations in basin outflow are higher than inflow. Microbial denitrification to promote nitrate removal can be enhanced by using underdrains in basin design that provide anoxic conditions. This study examines the impact of basin design and storm characteristics (precipitation intensity and antecedent dry period length) on microbial denitrification efficacy. Three basins in the Philadelphia area were selected for storm sampling: a large (~0.6 ha) wet basin without internal water storage, a small (~0.02 ha) basin without internal water storage, and a medium-sized (~0.1 ha) basin with internal water storage and a raised underdrain. In addition, three laboratory bioretention columns with underdrain configurations at the bottom, middle, and top of an internal water storage zone were sampled under steady-state and transient flow conditions. Samples collected as time series and grab samples during storm events were analyzed for nitrate concentrations and nitrate isotopes. Because microbes preferentially consume lighter nitrate isotopes (14N and 16O), stable isotope analysis offers an indication of denitrification. Stormwater outlet nitrate concentrations were lower than the inlet in the large suburban basin, similar to the inlet in the small suburban basin, and higher than the inlet in the urban basin. Differences in storm intensity and dry periods did not appear to increase or decrease nitrate concentrations in any basin, suggesting that basin design is a more dominant factor. The values of δ15N and δ18O in basin samples showed stormwater mixing without denitrification in all three basins. Only in the basin with water internal storage were periods of denitrification in samples observed, based on heavier δ15N and δ18O ratios. In laboratory studies, a lower underdrain configuration is preferred to promote denitrification based on heavier isotopic ratios and enrichment calculations. Bioretention columns had the largest enrichment factors (up to -5.3‰ ɛ 15N and -5.0‰ ɛ 18O) during steady-state flow. Lower enrichment factors associated with the low-intensity storm (-2.6‰ ɛ 15N and -1.3‰ ɛ 18O) show that transient flow disrupted denitrification rates. Field enrichment factors were greater than those in the columns (up to -11.9‰ ɛ 15N and -7.4‰ ɛ 18O). Even though nitrate decreased consistently over three storms, isotopic ratios did not exhibit these denitrification trends until at least eight hours after the onset of the storm events. Therefore, decreases in nitrate concentration alone are an unreliable assessment of denitrification efficacy. This study suggests that isotope analysis should be considered to better understand the conditions that promote denitrification. / Geology

Ekosystem med hög biodiversitet bidrar med många ekosystemtjänster i samhället och skapar motståndskraft mot klimatförändringar samt naturkatastrofer. Men globalt är den biologiska mångfalden hotad och anses vara en av de planetära gränserna som ligger i riskzonen att utlösa eventuellt irreversibla tröskeleffekter. Av denna anledning har den Europeiska unionen skapat en strategi för bevarandet av den biologiska mångfalden och ställer krav på alla medlemsstater att agera för att biologisk mångfald ska återhämtas och bevaras. Därför har samtliga av Sveriges länsstyrelser tagit fram en regional handlingsplan för grön infrastruktur, som ska underlätta implementerandet av gröna lösningar. I Stockholms län har dessutom Region Stockholm tagit fram en utvecklingsplan där de arbetar med grönstruktur, vilket ämnar bevara länets biodiversitet och ekosystemtjänster. Syftet med rapporten var att undersöka arealer av utvalda delar av grön infrastruktur och grönstruktur inom länet samt att analysera hur dessa fördelas på kommunal nivå. En sådan inblick kan underlätta vid planering och implementering av grön infrastruktur och grönstruktur. Studien utfördes inom ramen för forskningsprojektet (re)Planering av naturbaserade lösningar och grön infrastruktur för hållbar urban omställning (REPLAN). Arealerna beräknades med hjälp av programmet ArcGIS, där grönstrukturen samt utvalda delar av den gröna infrastrukturen initialt analyserades separat, varpå ett snitt och en union sammanställdes. Resultatet påvisade en stor variation av arealerna av grön infrastruktur och grönstruktur mellan respektive kommun samtidigt som vissa trender kunde identifieras. Exempelvis resulterade en hög andel av den ena inte nödvändigtvis i en hög andel av den andra. Vidare observerades att kommuner belägna längre bort från centrala Stockholm hade en benägenhet att ha mer grön infrastruktur än grönstruktur. Centralt belägna kommuner tenderade att ha relativ låg areal av båda, samt att snittet främst begränsades till exempelvis naturreservat. Områden innehållande en så kallad grön kil hade högre andel grönstruktur än områden utan. Rapportens valda begränsningar påverkade resultatet, där fler valda parametrar såsom naturtyper, skyddade områden och rekreationsområden hade genererat ett annat resultat. Det är viktigt att förstå kommunernas varierande förutsättningar vid implementering av grönstruktur och grön infrastruktur för att på ett adekvat sätt kunna planera för bevarandet av den biologiska mångfalden och ekosystemtjänster. / Ecosystems with high biodiversity contribute to many ecosystem services in society and create resilience to climate change and natural disasters. But globally, biodiversity is under threat and is considered to be one of the planetary boundaries that are at risk of triggering irreversible threshold effects. For this reason, the European Union has created a strategy for the conservation of biodiversity and calls on all Member States to take action to restore and preserve biodiversity. Therefore, all of Sweden's county administrative boards have developed a regional action plan for green infrastructure, to facilitate the implementation of green solutions. In Stockholm County, Region Stockholm has created a development plan where they work with greenstructure that aims to preserve the county's biodiversity and ecosystem services. The purpose of the report was to examine areas of selected parts of green infrastructure and greenstructure within the county and to analyse how these are distributed at a municipal level. Such insights can facilitate the planning and implementation of green infrastructure and greenstructure. The study was carried out within the framework of the research project (re)Planning Nature-Based Solutions and Green Infrastructure for Sustainable Urban Transformation (REPLAN). The analyses were carried out using the ArcGIS program, where greenstructure and selected parts of the green infrastructure were initially analysed separately, after which their intersection and union were compiled. The results showed a large variation in the areas of green infrastructure and greenstructure between each municipality, while certain trends could be identified. For example, a high proportion of one did not necessarily result in a high proportion of the other. Furthermore, it was observed that municipalities located further away from central Stockholm tended to have more green infrastructure than greenstructure. Centrally located municipalities tended to have a relatively low area of both, and the intersect was mainly limited to, for example, nature reserves. Municipalities containing a so-called green wedge had a higher proportion of greenstructure than municipalities without. The report's chosen limitations affected the result, where other parameters could have generated a different result. It is important to understand the municipalities' varying conditions when implementing greenstructure and green infrastructure to be able to adequately plan for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services.

In the summer of 2018 the European Commission awarded Lisbon as European Green Capital 2020 – in part due to investments made by Lisbon municipality in Green Infrastructure (GI) and new green spaces. As the city is becoming greener, this study aims to analyze Lisbon’s urban greening strategies from an environmental justice perspective. It does so based on data collected through desk-research of relevant planning documents and other studies; semi-structured interviews held with individuals working in different positions at Lisbon municipality; and field observations made in Lisbon’s green spaces. The data was analyzed while attending to the different dimensions of environmental justice (EJ), namely procedural and substantive aspects. This research finds that Lisbon’s urban greening strategies reflect environmental justice concerns by seeking to expand GI across the city and increase green space availability. However the strategies are based on a quantitative analysis of the spatial distribution of green spaces, failing to address other barriers that may prevent people from accessing and using green space. This is problematic as EJ is considered to go beyond just distribution. Furthermore forms of public participation and consultation are rather limited and are an exception to the rule; the decision-making process is based on the expert knowledge of civil servants – mainly landscape architects. As participation is seen as a central element of EJ, this research identifies a risk for Lisbon’s urban greening strategies to bypass the different needs and vulnerabilities of different social groups. Therefore, this study recommends policy-makers to include qualitative data regarding the use of Lisbon’s green spaces when analyzing access to green space, and to actively involve and recognize local residents when designing and implementing Lisbon’s GI. / Sommaren 2018 utsågs Lissabon av Europeiska kommissionen till Europas miljöhuvudstad 2020 – delvis på grund av investeringar som Lissabons kommun gjort i grön infrastruktur och nya grönområden. Eftersom staden håller på att bli grönare har denna studie som syfte att analysera Lissabons strategier för urban grönska från ett miljörättviseperspektiv. Denna analys baseras på data insamlad genom skrivbordsforskning i relevanta planeringsdokument och andra studier, semi-strukturerade intervjuer med anställda på Lissabons kommun, samt fältobservationer i Lissabons grönområden. Datan analyserades med hänsyn till de olika dimensionerna av miljörättvisa, nämligen procedurella och substantiva aspekter. Studiens resultat visar att Lissabons strategier för urban grönska tar hänsyn till miljörättviseperspektiv genom målet att utveckla grön infrstruktur runt om i staden och öka tillgången till grönområden. Däremot är strategierna baserade på en kvantitativ analys av den geografiska fördelningen av grönytor, och bortser därför från andra begränsningar som kan förhindra vissa gruppers tillgång till och användning av grönområden. Detta är problematiskt då miljörättvisa anses gå bortom endast geografisk fördelning. Dessutom finns det endast begränsat utrymme för allmännhetens deltagande och samråd; beslutsprocessen är snarare baserad på expertkunskaper från kommunens tjänstepersoner – främst landskapsarkitekter. Eftersom deltagande anses vara en central del i miljörättvisan finns här en risk att Lissabons strategier för urban grönska förbiser de mångfaldiga behov och svagheter av olika samhällsgrupper. Därför rekommenderar studien att beslutsfattare tar hänsyn till kvalitativ data om hur Lissabons grönområden används när de analyserar tillgång till grönområden, samt att de aktivt involverar invånare under design- och implementeringsprocessen av Lissabons gröna infrastruktur. / No verão de 2018, Lisboa foi eleita Capital Verde Europeia 2020 pela Comissão Europeia – em parte, devido aos investimentos feitos pela Câmara Municipal de Lisboa (CML) na Infraestrutura Verde da cidade e na criação de novos espaços verdes. Enquanto a cidade vai ficando mais verde, esta investigação visa analisar as estratégias de estrutura verde da CML a partir de uma perspetiva de justiça ambiental. A análise baseia-se em dados obtidos através do estudo de documentos estratégicos e de planeamento; de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com indivíduos em diferentes posições na CML; e, por último, de observações de campo feitas nos espaços verdes de Lisboa. A análise de dados atendeu às diferentes dimensões de justiça ambiental, nomeadamente aspetos processuais e substantivos. Baseado nessa análise, considera-se que as estratégias de estrutura verde da CML refletem questões de justiça ambiental no sentido de visar a expansão da Infraestrutura Verde pela cidade e o aumento da quantidade de espaços verdes. Contudo, as estratégias baseiam-se numa análise quantitativa da distribuição espacial de espaços verdes, sem ter em consideração possíveis outras barreiras que possam impedir as pessoas de aceder e usufruir de tais espaços. Isto é considerado problemático, uma vez que justiça ambiental requer ir além da distribuição justa. Ademais, as formas de participação ou consulta públicas são limitadas e uma exceção; o processo de tomada de decisão é fundamentado no conhecimento especializado de funcionários públicos, nomeadamente arquitetos paisagistas. Como a participação é vista como um elemento central de justiça ambiental, esta investigação identifica o risco de as estratégias de estrutura verde passarem ao lado das necessidades e vulnerabilidades específicas de diferentes grupos sociais. Assim, recomenda-se que as estratégias incluam uma análise qualitativa sobre a utilização de e acesso a espaços verdes; e que se vise o envolvimento e reconhecimento ativos dos residentes no processo de definição e implementação de novos espaços verdes.

Increasing recognition of the worlds' expanding population and current global rural-to-urban migration necessitates a better understanding and integration of urban ecological process into the framework for urban design (Sandström, 2006). Incorporating ecological processes such as resilience and dispersal into urban design requires special attention be paid to green infrastructure for the preservation and restoration of biodiversity. In addition, biodiversity improvement promotes related ecosystem services (Opdam et al., 2006) and advocates biodiversity conservation and strengthening as a key part of the development of sustainable urban landscapes. This research developed a replicable and broadly applicable method for determining the ability of green infrastructure to increase abundance of the three target species, and by extension, biodiversity. By applying the urban biodiversity assessment method, green infrastructure can be designed to build neighborhood scale urban ecological networks, specifically designed for the target species in Boston’s highly fragmented urban landscapes. Green infrastructures such as urban parks, riparian corridors, street trees, and unused abandoned land have the ability to serve as important reserves of biodiversity. Using the spatial pattern analysis program FRAGSTATS, the assessment of green infrastructure demonstrates its potential for increasing biodiversity of three target species (Red-tailed Hawk, Song Sparrow, and Variegated Fritillary). The comparative analysis of the existing green infrastructure with the proposed scenarios will determine their potential for species-specific neighborhood scale biodiversity improvement. Additionally, the comparison of the proposed scenarios and their rating helps provide valuable information regarding the spatial configuration of green infrastructure and the effect that it can have on target species.

Bringing nature back to cities to counteract the negative impacts of rapid urbanization has resulted in a series of greening terms coined by multidisciplinary scholars to emphasize the importance of natural areas and green environment in developing cities. Green infrastructure and nature-based solutions are popular scientific terms that are used to describe planning interventions for naturalization cities, but most of their studies still focus on academic literature, lacking attention to municipal plans. This study aims to identify terms related to green infrastructure and nature-based solutions in planning, analyze how these terms are used and varied in the municipal comprehensive plans in Stockholm County, and explore if the socioeconomic factors and context of these municipalities correlate to any variation. The study used systematic mapping literature and personal communication with planners to identify the relevant terms of green infrastructure and nature-based solutions, in order to carry out quantitative and qualitative analyses of the identified terms in the comprehensive plans of the municipalities in the county using NVivo and SPSS. The quantification analyses show that the integration of these terms varies significantly among municipalities even though the number of terms grows over time; however, this variation does not follow or correlate to any socioeconomic factors that characterize the municipalities. There are also differences between municipal plans in terms of definitions, functions, and other categories of content about the use of the terms. Regional plans are found to impact narrowing these differences significantly. Thus, regional authorities are suggested to publish the core principles on these terms to ensure the consistency of understanding among municipalities. Furthermore, a diagram of these terms showing how they are currently related to each other in most of the plans is concluded as a basis for future cross-municipal and intra-regional conversations. Future studies are recommended to focus on green infrastructure and nature-based solutions in detailed plans and green plans for implementation and a deeper understanding and to have more interviews with the planners for supporting planning practices of green infrastructure and nature-based solutions in cities.

De aktuella klimatförändringarna skapar utmaningar för västkustens kommuner. Detta skapar möjligheter för den blå-gröna infrastrukturen att samspela med de traditionella dagvattenledningsystemen för att skapa en mer hållbar dagvattenhantering. Syftet med denna studie är därför att undersöka hur Kungsbacka, Halmstads och Varbergs kommun arbetar med hållbar dagvattenhantering i praktiken för att motverka framtida översvämningar samt att undersöka vilka faktorer som påverkar kommunernas arbete med blå-grön infrastruktur. Studien har en kvalitativ tillvägagångsmetod i form av dokumentanalys samt semistrukturerade intervjuer. Med utgångspunkt i hållbarhetsövergångsteorin Multi-level perspective har de framtagna dokumenten och intervjuerna analyserats vilket konstaterar att politikerna ofta försvårar utvecklingen av blå-grön infrastruktur. Även utmaningar som geotekniska förutsättningar och markbrist påverkar den blå-gröna infrastrukturens möjlighet att frodas. Den breda tolkningen som kommunerna har av begreppet hållbar dagvattenhantering bidrar till en vidareutveckling av den blå-gröna infrastrukturen. Även klimathändelser påverkar den blå-gröna infrastrukturens förutsättning för genomslag hos den traditionella dagvattenhanteringen. / Climate change is creating challenges for the municipalities on the West Coast. This provides opportunities for blue-green infrastructure to collaborate with traditional stormwater management systems to create more sustainable stormwater management. The purpose of this study is therefore to investigate how the municipalities of Kungsbacka, Halmstad, and Varberg are working with sustainable stormwater management to counteract future flooding, and to examine the factors that affect the municipalities' work with blue-green infrastructure. Based on the sustainability transition theory Multi-level perspective, the documents and interviews have been analyzed, which states that politicians often hinder the development of blue-green infrastructure. Challenges such as geotechnical conditions and land shortage also affect the blue-green infrastructure's ability to thrive. Municipalities' broad interpretation of sustainable stormwater management promotes the sustainable stormwater management and therefore blue-green infrastructure development. Climate events affect the conditions for breakthroughs in traditional stormwater management.

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Green infrastructure (GI) is increasingly being adopted in urban planning as its multifunctionality presents opportunities to address several environmental issues faced by cities. However, significant barriers remain to the widespread implementation of GI. In the City of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, the dominance of engineering knowledge systems hinders GI from being brought to the forefront of infrastructural planning and decision-making processes. This dominance, and opportunistic implementation, also prevent GI from being equitably distributed across the city; thus, neglecting the needs of local equity-denied groups. To address the inequitable and engineering-dominated planning and decision-making processes around GI, this study aims to determine how GI and social equity can play a larger role in municipal operations. Through a literature review, document analysis, and key informant interviews, the relations between GI and equity are examined, as well as the extent to which the two are prioritized in planning and decision-making processes in the City of Vancouver. The concept of urban resilience is proposed as a way to bridge knowledge gaps, as its ability to act as both a boundary object and bridging concept can help to foster transdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge co- production. The findings highlight the need for practitioners to diversify their knowledge systems in order to successfully increase GI uptake and incorporate equity into practice. To enhance equitable GI practices within the City of Vancouver, staff are recommended to internalize and conceptualize equity in their personal and professional lives before attempting to operationalize it. This paper develops a set of equity criteria, which centre three dimensions of social equity: distributional, recognitional, and procedural equity, to help practitioners operationalize equity in GI project evaluations. A set of variables to aid in the identification of local equity-denied groups is also presented. As municipalities become increasingly aware of the disproportionate impacts felt by equity-denied groups, the hope is that this research will inform more equitable distributions of GI to address their needs.