<p dir="ltr">For this dissertation, two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of a multienzyme mix and partially defatted black soldier fly larvae meal on chicken coccidiosis, focusing on growth performance, intestinal health, and microbiota dynamics. Experiment 1 examined the growth performance, nutrient utilization, microbiota modulations, and other gut health-related indicators of broiler chickens under coccidia challenge, with dietary supplementation of multienzyme, including phytase, xylanase, β-glucanase, amylase, hemicellulase, and pectinase. Ross 308 broilers were assigned to 4 treatments in a 2×2 factorial arrangement comprising of 0 or 50 g·kg-1 multienzyme and oral challenge with PBS or mixed Eimeria spp. oocysts (250,000 E. acervulina, 50,000 E. maxima, and 50,000 E. tenella). Multienzyme reduced (P < 0.05) Eimeria-induced loss in feed efficiency and nutrient utilization, partially explained by reduced decrease of b0,+ amino acid transporter in jejunum. Multienzyme suppressed (P < 0.05) the overexpression of interleukin-8 in the duodenum and jejunum and ameliorated (P = 0.05) the decreased expression of antioxidant heme oxygenase 1 in ileum induced by Eimeria infections. Multienzyme facilitated (P < 0.01) the bloom of short-chain fatty acid-producing and fiber-degrading microbes. The study concluded that multienzyme supplementation partially alleviated the adverse effects of Eimeria infections through various mechanisms, including enhanced nutrient utilization, reduced local inflammations, and restoration of microbial homeostasis. Experiment 2 investigated the growth dynamics, nutrient assimilation, and gut health responses of broiler chickens under coccidia challenge, with dietary supplementation of partially defatted black soldier fly larvae meal (pBSFLM) with increasing concentrations of 0, 60, 120 g/kg. During the infection phase (from d 13 to 19), interactions between Eimeria and pBSFLM revealed significant associations with gain to feed ratio (G:F) (P < 0.05) and cecal interferon-γ (IFN-γ, P < 0.05), while showing tendencies for crypt depth (P = 0.088) and cecal acetate concentration (P = 0.06). The incremental inclusion of pBSFLM demonstrated a negative effect on the G:F and the generation of IFN-γ and acetate in the ceca during coccidia challenge. Conversely in the non-challenged birds, the impact of dietary pBSFLM varied from neutral (e.g. G:F) to potentially advantageous (e.g. acetate). Challenged broilers exhibited decreased (P < 0.01) BW, feed intake (FI), G:F, as well as the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and total tract nutrient utilization (ATTU) of DM, gross energy (GE), and nitrogen (N). Eimeria challenge led to reduced (P < 0.01) serum carotenoid concentrations, increased (P < 0.01) ileal crypt depth (CD), and an increase in the generation of branched-chain fatty acids, specifically isobutyrate (P = 0.059) and isovalerate (P < 0.05) in the ceca. Dietary pBSFLM addition caused a linear reduction (P < 0.05) in BW, FI, G:F, and N utilization. Furthermore, a tendency (P < 0.06) was observed where pBSFLM linearly decreased the villi height: CD ratio and reduced goblet cell density in the villi. Results from this experiment reveal that higher levels of pBSFLM supplementation, especially at 12%, had detrimental effects on growth, ileal morphology, cecal acetate production, and downregulated the expression of key cytokines in response to coccidia infection. In summary, these studies shed light on the multifaceted effects of dietary interventions on Eimeria infections in broiler chickens, with a specific emphasis on growth, nutrient utilization, and indicators of gut health.</p>

Abstract: Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease that requires interprofessional collaboration. Pharmacological options are currently ineffective, increasing the need for preventative strategies to combat the rise of AD. Considerations of gut-targeted interventions have increased as a key component in the prevention of AD, based on the understanding that the state of the gut microbiome can impact cognitive function through the pathway known as the gut-brain axis. Methods: This scoping review explored information on the gut-brain axis in persons with AD. A comprehensive search was conducted in November 2023. Forty reviews and 13 human studies were analyzed. Results: There is an abundance of information supporting the role of the gut-brain axis in the development and prevention of AD. This information is complex and may deter healthcare professionals outside of neuroscience, medicine, and nutrition from engaging in the literature. Further research is needed from within the SLP’s scope of practice.

We investigated the hypothesis that exposure to inhaled diesel exhaust PM can alter the gut microbiome and intestinal integrity, thereby promoting systemic inflammatory response and early CVD risk, which are exacerbated by HF diet. Furthermore, we investigated whether the observed exposure and diet-mediated outcomes could be mitigated through probiotic treatment. We performed an exposure study on C57Bl/6 male mice, placed on either a low fat (LF) diet or a high-fat (HF) diet, and exposed via oropharyngeal aspiration to 35 μg diesel exhaust particles (DEP) suspended in 35 μl of sterile saline or sterile saline controls (CON) twice a week for four weeks. A subset of mice on HF diet were dosed with 0.3 g/day (PRO, ~7.5x108 CFU/day) of probiotic Ecologic® Barrier 849 (Winclove Probiotics) in drinking water during the course of the study. For our first aim, we investigated the alterations in the gut microbiome, measured circulating cytokines and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and measured CVD biomarkers in the heart. Our results revealed that exposure to inhaled DEP results in gut dysbiosis characterized by expansion of the phyla Verrucomicrobia and Proteobacteria and reduction in Actinobacteria, which was exacerbated by HF diet. Probiotics mitigated the DEP-mediated expansion of Proteobacteria and re-established Actinobacteria in the intestine of HF animals. Furthermore, we determined that exposure to inhaled DEP increases systemic LPS and inflammatory markers IL-1α, IL-3, G-CSF, and TNF-α. Furthermore, we found that inhaled DEP exposure results in increased CVD biomarkers sICAM-1, sP-selectin, and thrombomodulin in the heart. Probiotic treatment was effective in attenuating LPS, inflammatory responses, and CVD biomarkers in HF animals, validating the involvement of the microbiome in mediating inhaled DEP-mediated responses. Considering the effects we observed in the microbiota and systemically of the HF and probiotic treatment animals, we investigated the effects of inhaled DEP on intestinal integrity and inflammation in HF ± PRO animals. Our results showed that inhaled DEP in conjunction with HF diet promotes increased goblet cell and mucin 2 expression, tight junction (TJ) proteins (claudin-3, occludin, and zonula occludens (ZO)-1) expression, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, toll-like receptor (TLR)-4, and decreased TNF-α and IL-10. Moreover, we found that probiotics promoted intestinal immune response following inhaled DEP exposure characterized by an increase in TNF-α and IL-10 and showed variable expression of TJs in the intestine. In conclusion, we found that inhaled DEP exposure results in changes in gut microbial profiles, altered intestinal integrity, systemic inflammation, and increased CVD biomarkers, which are exacerbated by HF diet. The use of probiotics in this study proved to be pivotal in understanding the microbiome's influences on the regulation of intestinal integrity, intestinal inflammation, systemic inflammation, and cardiovascular system following inhaled DEP exposure with HF diet.

Flera miljoner människor världen över är idag drabbade av depression vilket skapar ett stort lidande. Depression leder även många gånger till självmord. Känt är att tarmmikrobiotan är en viktig del i sjukdomsförloppet [MB1] och att kunna karakterisera tarmmikrobiota som är av psykobiotisk karaktär blir därför viktigt i ett behandlande syfte men också för att kunna ställa diagnos mer objektivt. Syftet med den här litteraturstudien är att genom artikelgranskning i PubMed undersöka vad senaste forskningen säger om tarmmikrobiotans roll i tryptofanmetabolismen med efterföljande effekt på depression. Skiljer sig tarmmikrobiotan och tryptofanmetabolismen mellan individer med och utan depression och kan tarmmikrobiotan och tryptofanmetaboliter användas som biomarkörer för att diagnostisera depression? Resultatet visar att tarmmikrobiotan och vissa tryptofanmetaboliter skiljer sig signifikant åt mellan friska individer och individer med depression. Studiens slutsats är att tarmmikrobiota och tryptofans metaboliter skulle kunna användas som biomarkörer för att kunna diagnostisera depression mer objektivt. Dock förekommer flera olika potentiella confounders som bör tas i beaktning. / Several million people worldwide are today affected by depression, which creates a lot of suffering. Depression also often leads to suicide. It is known that the gut microbiota is an important part of the course of the disease and being able to characterize gut microbiota that is of a psychobiotic nature therefore becomes important for a treatment purpose but also to be able to make a diagnosis more objectively. The aim of this literature study is to examine, through article review in PubMed, what the latest research says about the role of gut microbiota in tryptophan metabolism with subsequent effect on depression. Do gut microbiota and tryptophan metabolism differ between individuals with and without depression and can gut microbiota and tryptophan metabolites be used as biomarkers to diagnose depression? The results show that the gut microbiota and certain tryptophan metabolites differ significantly between healthy individuals and individuals with depression. The study's conclusion is that gut microbiota and tryptophan metabolites could be used as biomarkers to diagnose depression more objectively. However, there are several different potential confounders that should be taken into account.

Bile acids are crucial for the uptake of dietary lipids and can shape the gut-microbiome composition. This latter function is associated with the toxicity of bile acids and can be modulated by bile acid modifying bacteria such as Eggerthella lenta, but the molecular details of the interaction of bacteria depending on bile acid modifications are not well understood. In order to unravel the molecular response to bile acids and their metabolites, we cultivated eight strains from a human intestinal microbiome model alone and in co-culture with Eggerthella lenta in the presence of cholic acid (CA) and deoxycholic acid (DCA). We observed growth inhibition of particularly gram-positive strains such as Clostridium ramosum and the gram-variable Anaerostipes cacae by CA and DCA stress. C. ramosum was alleviated through co-culturing with Eggerthella lenta. We approached effects on the membrane by zeta potential and genotoxic and metabolic effects by (meta)proteomic and metabolomic analyses. Co-culturing with Eggerthella lenta decreased both CA and DCA by the formation of oxidized and epimerized bile acids. Eggerthella lenta also produces microbial bile salt conjugates in a co-cultured species-specific manner. This study highlights how the interaction with other bacteria can influence the functionality of bacteria.

No description available.

[ES] En esta tesis, se realizaron análisis genómicos, metagenómicos y metabolómicos en líneas de conejo seleccionadas de forma divergente para alta y baja VE del tamaño de la camada (TC). Estos animales mostraron diferencias en su potencial de resiliencia. Por ello, estas poblaciones divergentes son un excelente material biológico para estudiar la resiliencia animal a través de la VE. Se realizaron estudios de asociación del genoma (GWAS) utilizando la regresión de un solo marcador y la regresión bayesiana de múltiples marcadores. Cuatro regiones genómicas se asociaron con la VE en el cromosoma 3 de Oryctolagus cuniculus (OCU), OCU7, OCU10 y OCU14, explicando el 8,6% de la varianza genética total para la VE. Además, el estudio de huellas de selección (SS) identificó 134 regiones genómicas que podrían estar bajo selección para la VE. El solapamiento entre ambos estudios se identificó en el OCU3, donde también se encontraron mutaciones funcionales para los genes DOCK2, INSYN2B y FOXI1. Los genes candidatos de GWAS y SS fueron aquellos con mutaciones funcionales identificadas mediante el análisis de secuenciación del genoma completo (WGS) con pools de ADN. Los genes candidatos destacados mostraron funciones biológicas relacionadas con el desarrollo de estructuras sensoriales, la respuesta inmunitaria, la respuesta al estrés y el sistema nervioso. Todas ellas son funciones relevantes para modular la resiliencia de los animales. Por otra parte, los estudios metagenómicos y metabolómicos mostraron que la selección para la VE modificó el microbioma intestinal y la composición de su metaboloma. Las especies microbianas beneficiosas como Alistipes prutedinis, Alistipes shahii, Odoribacter splanchnicus y Limosilactobacillus fermentum eran más abundantes en la población resiliente. En cambio, las especies microbianas nocivas, como Acetatifactor muris y Eggerthella sp, fueron más abundantes en los animales no resistentes. Los genes relacionados con la formación de biofilms, el metabolismo de aminoácidos aromáticos (fenilalanina, triptófano y tirosina) y el metabolismo del glutamato también se expresaron de forma diferencial entre las poblaciones de conejos. Además, se identificaron 15 metabolitos intestinales como potenciales biomarcadores para discriminar y predecir adecuadamente entre las poblaciones de conejos resistentes y no resistentes. Cinco de ellos, el equol, el 3-(4-hidroxifenil)lactato, el 5-aminovalerato, la N6-acetilisina y la serina son metabolitos de origen microbiano. Este es el primer estudio que desvela importantes mecanismos biológicos de la resiliencia animal generada por la selección de la VE de TC. El genoma y el microbioma intestinal y la composición del metaboloma se modificaron a lo largo del proceso de selección, afectando a la respuesta inmunitaria y al estrés. Se encontraron resultados coincidentes entre los estudios metagenómicos y del metaboloma. Por otro lado, en esta tesis desarrollamos por primera vez una herramienta flexible para simular la coevolución del genoma y el microbioma a través de un proceso de selección. La clave de esta herramienta fue la implementación de la herencia del microbioma. Está construida en R y basada en AlphaSimR para que el usuario pueda modificar el código e implementar diferentes escenarios. Esta tesis es el primer paso para desarrollar futuras estrategias y nuevas investigaciones para mejorar la resiliencia de los animales. Una selección que combine información genómica y metagenómica puede mejorar la respuesta de selección. Además, los metabolitos derivados del intestino con evidencia de crosstalk pueden utilizarse como biomarcadores para identificar animales resilientes por plasma, evitando la extracción de muestras fecales para determinar la composición del microbioma. Si estos estudios tienen éxito, estas estrategias podrían mejorar la resiliencia de los animales con el objetivo de buscar un sistema ganadero más sostenible. / [CA] En aquesta tesi, es van realitzar anàlisis genòmiques, metagenòmiques i metabolòmiques en línies de conill seleccionades de manera divergent per a alta i baixa VE de la grandària de la ventrada (GV). Aquests animals van mostrar diferències en el seu potencial de resiliència. Per això, aquestes poblacions divergents són un excel·lent material biològic per a estudiar la resiliència animal a través de la VE. Es van realitzar estudis d'associació del genoma (GWAS) utilitzant la regressió d'un solo marcador i la regressió bayesiana de múltiples marcadors. Quatre regions genòmiques es van associar amb la VE en el cromosoma 3 de Oryctolagus cuniculus (OCU), OCU7, OCU10 i OCU14, explicant el 8,6% de la variància genètica total per a la VE. A més, l'estudi de petjades de selecció (SS) va identificar 134 regions genòmiques que podrien estar sota selecció per a la VE. El solapament entre tots dos estudis es va identificar en l'OCU3, on també es van trobar mutacions funcionals per als gens DOCK2, INSYN2B i FOXI1. Els gens candidats de GWAS i SS van ser aquells amb mutacions funcionals identificades mitjançant l'anàlisi de seqüenciació del genoma complet (WGS) amb pools d'ADN. Els gens candidats destacats van mostrar funcions biològiques relacionades amb el desenvolupament d'estructures sensorials, la resposta immunitària, la resposta a l'estrés i el sistema nerviós. Totes elles són funcions rellevants per a modular la resiliència dels animals. D'altra banda, els estudis metagenòmiques i *metabolòmiques van mostrar que la selecció per a la VE va modificar el microbioma intestinal i la composició de la seua metaboloma. Les espècies microbianes beneficioses com Alistipes prutedinis, Alistipes shahii, Odoribacter splanchnicus i Limosilactobacillus fermentum eren més abundants en la població resilient. En canvi, les espècies microbianes nocives, com Acetatifactor muris i Eggerthella sp, van ser més abundants en els animals no resistents. Els gens relacionats amb la formació de biofilms, el metabolisme d'aminoàcids aromàtics (fenilalanina, triptòfan i tirosina) i el metabolisme del glutamat també es van expressar de manera diferencial entre les poblacions de conills. A més, es van identificar 15 metabòlits intestinals com a potencials biomarcadores per a discriminar i predir adequadament entre les poblacions de conills resistents i no resistents. Cinc d'ells, el equol, el 3-(4-hidroxifenil)lactat, el 5-aminovalerato, la N6-acetilisina i la serina són metabòlits d'origen microbià. Aquest és el primer estudi que revela importants mecanismes biològics de la resiliència animal generada per la selecció de la VE de GC. El genoma i el microbioma intestinal i la composició del metaboloma es van modificar al llarg del procés de selecció, afectant la resposta immunitària i a l'estrés. Es van trobar resultats coincidents entre els estudis metagenòmiques i del metaboloma. D'altra banda, en aquesta tesi desenvolupem per primera vegada una eina flexible per a simular la coevolució del genoma i el microbioma a través d'un procés de selecció. La clau d'aquesta eina va ser la implementació de l'herència del microbioma. Està construïda en R i basada en AlphaSimR perquè l'usuari puga modificar el codi i implementar diferents escenaris. Aquesta tesi és el primer pas per a desenvolupar futures estratègies i noves investigacions per a millorar la resiliència dels animals. Una selecció que combine informació genòmica i metagenòmique pot millorar la resposta de selecció. A més, els metabòlits derivats de l'intestí amb evidència de crosstalk poden utilitzar-se com biomarcadores per a identificar animals resilients per plasma, evitant l'extracció de mostres fecals per a determinar la composició del microbioma. Si aquests estudis tenen èxit, aquestes estratègies podrien millorar la resiliència dels animals amb l'objectiu de buscar un sistema ramader més sostenible. / [EN] Disclosing the biological mechanisms of the VE can help to gain some insight into the biological basics of animal resilience. In this thesis, genomic, metagenomic, and metabolomic analyses were performed on rabbit lines divergently selected for high and low VE of litter size (LS). These animals showed differences in their resilience potential. Thus, these divergent populations are an excellent biological material for studying animal resilience through the VE. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were performed using single marker regression, and Bayesian multiple marker regression approaches. Four genomic regions were associated with the VE in the Oryctolagus cuniculus chromosome (OCU) 3, OCU7, OCU10, and OCU14, explaining 8.6% of the total genetic variance for the VE. In addition, the signature of selection (SS) study identified 134 genomic regions which could be under selection for VE. Overlapping between both studies was placed in the OCU3, where functional mutations for the DOCK2, INSYN2B and FOXI1 genes were also found. Candidate genes from GWAS and SS were those with functional mutations identified using whole genome sequencing (WGS) analysis with pools of DNA. Highlighted candidate genes showed biological functions related to the development of sensory structures, the immune response, the stress response, and the nervous system. All of them are relevant functions to modulate animal resilience. On the other hand, metagenomic and metabolomic studies showed that the selection for VE modified the gut microbiome and metabolome composition. Beneficial microbial species such as Alistipes prutedinis, Alistipes shahii, Odoribacter splanchnicus and Limosilactobacillus fermentum were more abundant in the resilient population. In contrast, harmful microbial species such as Acetatifactor muris and Eggerthella sp were more abundant in the non-resilient animals. Genes related to biofilm formation, aromatic amino acid metabolism (Phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine), and glutamate metabolism were also differentially expressed between the rabbit populations. Furthermore, 15 gut metabolites were identified as potential biomarkers to properly discriminate and predict between the resilient and non-resilient rabbit populations. Five of them, the equol, 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)lactate, 5-aminovalerate, N6-acetyllisine, and serine were microbial-derived metabolites. This is the first study unravelling important biological mechanisms under the animal resilience generated by VE of LS selection. Genome and gut microbiome and metabolome composition were modified throughout the selection process, affecting the immune and stress response. Overlapping results were found between the metagenomic and metabolome studies. On the other hand, in this thesis, we developed a flexible tool for simulating the coevolution of the genome and microbiome across a selection process for the first time. The key of this tool was the implementation of the microbiome inheritance. It is constructed in R and based on AlphaSimR so the user can modify the code and implement different scenarios. This thesis is the first step to develop future strategies and further research to improve animal resilience. A selection combining genomic and metagenomic information may improve the selection response. Moreover, gut-derived metabolites with evidence of crosstalk can be used as biomarkers to identify resilient animals by plasma, avoiding the extraction of faecal samples to determine the microbiome composition. If these studies suceed, these strategies could improve animal resilience with the aim of search a more sustainable livestock system. Lastly, the simulation tool developed could help unravel the microbiome's implications in animal breeding programs. / This study was supported by projects AGL2014-5592, C2-1-P and C2-2-P, and AGL2017-86083, C2-1-P and C2-2-P, funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MIC)-Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) and the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER). Projects PID2020-115558GB-C21, funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MIC)-Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) and the European Regional Development Funds (FEDER) FPU17/01196 scholarship from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities. / Casto Rebollo, C. (2023). Unravelling the Environmental Variance of Litter Size Through the Genome and Gut Microbiome [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/192460

Changes in the human gastrointestinal microbiome are associated with several diseases. To infer causality, experiments in representative models are essential, but widely used animal models exhibit limitations. Here we present a modular, microfluidics-based model (HuMiX, human-microbial crosstalk), which allows co-culture of human and microbial cells under conditions representative of the gastrointestinal human-microbe interface. We demonstrate the ability of HuMiX to recapitulate in vivo transcriptional, metabolic and immunological responses in human intestinal epithelial cells following their co-culture with the commensal Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) grown under anaerobic conditions. In addition, we show that the co-culture of human epithelial cells with the obligate anaerobe Bacteroides caccae and LGG results in a transcriptional response, which is distinct from that of a co-culture solely comprising LGG. HuMiX facilitates investigations of host-microbe molecular interactions and provides insights into a range of fundamental research questions linking the gastrointestinal microbiome to human health and disease.

En relation avec sa position anatomique, la détection portale de nutriments se situe au coeur de l’impact de la composition nutritionnelle d’un repas sur la prise alimentaire et le métabolisme énergétique. Ainsi, la détection portale de glucose, produit par exemple en réponse aux protéines alimentaires, induit un signal nerveux à l’origine d’une induction de la satiété et d’une amélioration de l’homéostasie glucidique. Grâce à des travaux physiologiques et anatomiques chez le rat, nous proposons un modèle pour cette détection dans lequel deux modes interviennent, soit un transport et un catabolisme intracellulaire, soit une détection purement extracellulaire du glucose. La glycémie portale est détectée par l’un ou l’autre de ces mécanismes en fonction de sa différence avec la glycémie artérielle, reflet du statut nutritionnel et métabolique des individus. Un signal nerveux est ensuite initié dans les neurones périportaux, dont les axones aboutissent à proximité de la lumière veineuse. Les études immunohistochimiques réalisées ont permis de montrer que ce signal induit une activation cérébrale étendue en relation avec les effets multiples du glucose portal, dans le tronc cérébral, les systèmes sensoriels et cortico-limbiques, et l’hypothalamus. Dans ce dernier, la nature cellulaire de l’activation conforte notamment l’hypothèse de l’implication du signal glucose portal dans l’effet de satiété induit par les régimes riches en protéines. / Nutrient sensing in the portal vein occurs in a strategic location to relay the effects of the diet on food intake and energy metabolism. The portal sensing of glucose produced for instance in response to dietary proteins initiates a nervous signal that ultimately induces satiety and a better control of glucose metabolism. Our physiological and anatomical approaches enable us to propose a sensing model in which two different mechanisms can occur, involving either the intracellular transport and catabolism of glucose or a direct extracellular detection. Portal glycaemia is detected by one pathway or the other depending on its difference with arterial blood glucose, which reflects the nutritional and metabolic state of the subject. A nervous signal is then initiated in periportal neurons, whose axons terminate close to the venous lumen. Our immunohistochemical studies have shown that this signal induces a widespread activation in the brain that relates to the multiple effects of portal glucose appearance, in the brainstem, the sensory and cortico-limbic systems and the hypothalamus. In this latter area, the cellular nature of the activation supports the hypothesized central role of portal glucose appearance in the satiety effect of high-protein diets.

Charles University in Prague Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové Department of Biological and Medical Sciences Candidate: Lucie Ambrožová Supervisor: Doc. MUDr. Josef Herink, DrSc. Title of diploma thesis: Intestinal microbiota and mood disorders The intestinal microbiom is composed mainly of two dominated strains - Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes. The other strains are just not numerous like the previous ones. The specimens have the invariable core of microbiom which doesn't change in time. Nevertheless they have also the transient gut bacteria, which change during their life. Intestinal microbiom is influenced by many factors. Between them we can categorize for example the way of the childbirth, the breast - feeding, the alimentation, the state of health, and the medicaments. Every specimen has own specific microbiom. It was found that human population is possible to divide into three intestinal groups or enterotypes. To each enterotype dominates different bacterial strain. It was proved that intestinal microbiom communicates with the brain and it works also vice versa. This communication system is called "brain - intestine" and takes several ways in several body systems (such as nervous, endocrine, metabolic, and immune). To normal development of the brain is needed the right colonisation of non...