<p>The human glucose transporter GLUT1 facilitates glucose to be accumulated on the other side of the cell membrane. The functional state of GLUT1 is uncertain due to diversity of the reports. In this thesis, the activity of red blood cell GLUT1 was extensively studied to further characterize this protein.</p><p>The human red blood cell membranes were stripped to become vesicles with low-ionic alkaline solution in the presence or absence of dithioerithritol. The supernatant of partially solubilized membrane vesicles provided approximately 65% of the vesicle proteins. GLUT1 purified from this supernatant showed a little high-affinity cytochalasin B binding activity. On the other hand, the vesicles stripped with dithioerythritol provided mostly monomeric GLUT1 and those without dithioerythritol provided monomeric and oligomeric GLUT1. MALDI-ToF-MS detected variant GLUT1 fragments between the two preparations. Residual endogenous phospholipids per GLUT1 also showed difference. However, the equilibrium exchange of glucose was retained for both GLUT1 preparations. Cytochalasin B-binding activity of GLUT1 in streptoavidin-biotin-immobilized red blood cells showed that both dissociation constant and binding sites per GLUT1 fell between those of wheat germ lectin-immobilized red blood cells with or without polylysine coating, which indicated the switching of two cytochalasin B-binding states of GLUT1. It is concluded that GLUT1 in red blood cells contains approximately two equal portions, monomeric with high-affinity cytochalasin B-binding activity and oligomeric without high-affinity cytochalasin B-binding activity. In the partial solubilization of the membrane vesicles, GLUT1 which does not have high-affinity cytochalasin B-binding activity is pooled. This might provide a resolution to select oligomerically and functionally different GLUT1 for crystallization.</p><p>In addition a modified micro-Bradford assay with CaPE precipitation was developed to achieve a routine quantitation method for membrane proteins and the effects of cholesterol and PEG(5000)-DSPE on reconstituted GLUT1 were preliminarily determined.</p>

The human glucose transporter GLUT1 facilitates glucose to be accumulated on the other side of the cell membrane. The functional state of GLUT1 is uncertain due to diversity of the reports. In this thesis, the activity of red blood cell GLUT1 was extensively studied to further characterize this protein. The human red blood cell membranes were stripped to become vesicles with low-ionic alkaline solution in the presence or absence of dithioerithritol. The supernatant of partially solubilized membrane vesicles provided approximately 65% of the vesicle proteins. GLUT1 purified from this supernatant showed a little high-affinity cytochalasin B binding activity. On the other hand, the vesicles stripped with dithioerythritol provided mostly monomeric GLUT1 and those without dithioerythritol provided monomeric and oligomeric GLUT1. MALDI-ToF-MS detected variant GLUT1 fragments between the two preparations. Residual endogenous phospholipids per GLUT1 also showed difference. However, the equilibrium exchange of glucose was retained for both GLUT1 preparations. Cytochalasin B-binding activity of GLUT1 in streptoavidin-biotin-immobilized red blood cells showed that both dissociation constant and binding sites per GLUT1 fell between those of wheat germ lectin-immobilized red blood cells with or without polylysine coating, which indicated the switching of two cytochalasin B-binding states of GLUT1. It is concluded that GLUT1 in red blood cells contains approximately two equal portions, monomeric with high-affinity cytochalasin B-binding activity and oligomeric without high-affinity cytochalasin B-binding activity. In the partial solubilization of the membrane vesicles, GLUT1 which does not have high-affinity cytochalasin B-binding activity is pooled. This might provide a resolution to select oligomerically and functionally different GLUT1 for crystallization. In addition a modified micro-Bradford assay with CaPE precipitation was developed to achieve a routine quantitation method for membrane proteins and the effects of cholesterol and PEG(5000)-DSPE on reconstituted GLUT1 were preliminarily determined.

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No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseTSSM.pdf: 23662587 bytes, checksum: 4ef26b2b65e46560d905cc700258cd0d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-30 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / In ethanol production process from hemicellulosic fraction, the use of xylooligomers (XOS) as substrate reduce the contamination risk, favoring its application at industrial scale. Thus, a biocatalyst, containing xylanases, xylose isomerase (XI) and yeast co-immobilized in calcium alginate gel, was developed and XOS simultaneous hydrolysis, isomerization and fermentation (SHIF) process was studied. Firstly, xylanases from Multifect CX XL A03139 (XAS-5), a commercial enzyme preparation, and the recombinant xylanase from Bacillus subtilis (XynA) were selected to compose biocatalyst beads. XAS-5 presented better conversion (78.7%) and higher xylose production in the hydrolysis of beechwood xylan, while XynA showed exclusive endoxylanase activity. The immobilization and stabilization of XynA were performed in chitosan-glutaraldehyde, chitosan-glyoxyl and agarose-glyoxyl. Although the enzyme was efficiently immobilized on all supports, the agarose-glyoxyl-XynA derivative was notable for exhibiting remarkable stabilization under tested conditions (8600 times). Studies of SHIF process were carried out with birchwood xylan, leading to ethanol production (0.160 g/g and 0.092 g/L.h) and xylose accumulation, which indicated XI activity decrease. Further experiments were then performed to to identify possible inhibitors of XI (pH, Ca2+, Mg2+ and xylooligosaccharides). Ca2+ was identified as an inhibitor, while Mg2+ acts as an activator of the enzyme, and both actions are potentiated at acidic pHs. XI is also inhibited by XOS, with a decrease of 31.6% in XI activity in the presence of 7.0 g/L of xylobiose. For this reason, it was decided to evaluate SIF process with a recombinant yeast, capable of expressing XI. In batch runs, GSE16-T18 (T18) yeast encapsulated in alginate gel was capable to ferment xylose efficiently, consuming 40 g/L of xylose in 4 h and producing 14.4 g/L of ethanol, with yield of 0.422 g/g and productivity of 3.61 g/L.h. Calcium alginate gel encapsulation also contributed to protect yeast from the action of inhibitors, such as acetic acid. The encapsulated T18 was able to perform 10 consecutive cycles in repeated batch (yeast extract-peptone medium with 40 g/L of xylose), keeping the same productivity and high yields. It also fermented efficiently sugarcane bagasse hydrolysate, containing 60 g/L of fermentable sugars and high grade of inhibitors. The modified yeast to be more tolerant to acetic acid, GSE16-T18 HAA1, was also studied, exhibiting superior performance in comparison to T18 for hydrolysate fermentations. Continuous experiments were conducted in a fixed bed reactor using the T18-HAA1 yeast immobilized, with different xylose concentrations (40, 60, 80 and 120 g/L) in the feed medium. The reactor was operated up to 15 days, without bacterial contamination, with yield of 0.45 g/g, productivity of 4.8 g/L.h and selectivity of 31 gethanol/gxylitol (60 g/L of xylose in the feed). For the concentrations higher than 60 g/L, the conversion decreased after 4 days of continuous operation, indicating loss of cell viability due to hazardous effect of ethanol when present at 30 g/L or more, as well as limitation of oxygen and nutrients in the system. / No processo de produção de etanol a partir da fração hemicelulósica, a utilização de xilooligômeros como substrato reduz o risco de contaminação, favorecendo o emprego da tecnologia em escala industrial. Para isso, um biocatalisador contendo xilanases, xilose isomerase (XI) e levedura co-imobilizadas em gel de alginato de cálcio foi desenvolvido e o processo de hidrólise, isomerização e fermentação simultâneos (SHIF) de xilooligômeros foi estudado. Primeiramente, as xilanases presentes no produto Multifect CX XL A03139 (XAS- 5) e a xilanase recombinante de Bacillus subtilis (XynA) foram selecionadas para compor os beads do biocatalisador. XAS-5 apresentou melhor conversão (78,7%) e maior produção de xilose na hidrólise da xilana de faia, enquanto XynA apresentou exclusiva atividade de endoxilanase. Realizou-se a imobilização e estabilização da XynA em quitosanaglutaraldeído, quitosana-glioxil e agarose-glioxil. Apesar da enzima ser eficientemente imobilizada nos três suportes, o derivado agarose-glioxil-XynA se destacou por apresentar uma estabilização notável nas condições testadas (8600 vezes). Estudos do processo SHIF foram realizados com xilana de bétula, observando-se produção de etanol (0,160 g/g e 0,092 g/L.h) e acúmulo de xilose, indicando redução da atividade da XI. Realizou-se então, um estudo para identificar possíveis inibidores da XI (pH, Ca2+, Mg2+ e XOS), constatando-se que Ca2+ é um inibidor enquanto Mg2+ é um ativador da enzima, sendo suas ações potencializadas em pHs ácidos. Comprovou-se também que XI é inibida por XOS, observando-se queda da atividade de XI (31,6%) na presença de 7,0 g/L de xilobiose. Desta forma, tornou-se interessante avaliar o processo SIF com uma levedura recombinante, capaz de expressar XI. Em ensaios em batelada, a levedura GSE16-T18 (T18), encapsulada em gel de alginato, mostrou-se eficiente na fermentação de xilose, consumindo 40 g/L de xilose em 4 h e produzindo 14,4 g/L de etanol, com rendimento de 0,422 g/g e produtividade de 3,61 g/L.h. O encapsulamento em gel de alginato de cálcio também protegeu a levedura da ação de inibidores, como o ácido acético. A T18 encapsulada foi capaz de realizar 10 ciclos consecutivos em bateladas repetidas (meio contendo extrato de levedura, peptona e 40 g/L de substrato), mantendo mesma produtividade e elevado rendimento, além de fermentar eficientemente hidrolisado hemicelulósico de bagaço de cana, contendo 60 g/L de açúcares fermentescíveis e alto teor de inibidores. A levedura GSE16-T18 HAA1, modificada geneticamente para ser mais tolerante ao ácido acético, foi também estudada, com resultados superiores a T18 nas fermentações de hidrolisado. Fermentações em modo contínuo foram realizadas em reator de leito fixo utilizando a levedura T18-HAA1 imobilizada, com diferentes concentrações de xilose na alimentação (40, 60, 80 e 120 g/L). O reator foi operado por até 15 dias, sem ocorrência de contaminação por bactérias, com rendimento 0,45 g/g, produtividade em etanol de 4,8 g/L.h e seletividade de 31 getanol/gxilitol (60 g/L de xilose na alimentação). Para as concentrações superiores a 60 g/L, a conversão diminuiu após 4 dias de operação contínua, indicando perda de viabilidade celular devido à ação do etanol quando presente em concentrações acima de 30 g/L e da limitação de oxigênio e nutrientes no sistema.

Im Bereich der Umwelttechnik bieten sich vielversprechende Einsatzmöglichkeiten für Sol-Gel-immobilisierte Mikroorganismen sowohl für die Entfernung als auch für die Detektion von Schadstoffen an. Für einen effizienten Einsatz sind zum einen eine hohe Langzeitaktivität und -vitalität der eingebetteten Zellen als auch eine gute Lagerbeständigkeit wichtig. Neben einer hohen Makroporosität, die sowohl für einen guten Stoffaustausch mit der Umgebung sorgt sowie den Zellen Raum für Zellteilung bietet, ist vor allem auch die Aufrechterhaltung der Feuchtigkeit in der Immobilisierungsmatrix während der Immobilisierung, der Lagerung und des Einsatzes wichtig. Besonders vorteilhaft hat sich hier eine Immobilisierung in dünnen SiO2-Schichten auf Blähtonbruchstücken erwiesen, da dieses Trägermaterial neben einer hohen Makroporosität auch ein hohes Wasserspeichervermögen besitzt. Immobilisiert in dünnen SiO2-Schichten auf Blähton konnten diverse Schadstoff-abbauende Mikroorganismen mehrere Monate auch außerhalb eines flüssigen Mediums unter feuchten Bedingungen gelagert werden, ohne dass ihre Abbauleistung erheblich sank. Ein weiteres Verfahren um Immobilisierungsmaterialien mit überdurchschnittlich hoher Makroporosität bei gleichzeitig hoher Stabilität zu erzeugen, stellt das Freeze-Gelation Verfahren dar. Über einen Gefriertrocknungsschritt können hier zudem die zu immobilisierenden Zellen in eine trocken lagerfähige Form überführt werden, wodurch Handhabung sowie Lagerung und Transport vereinfacht werden. Außerdem kann durch Wahl der Einfrierbedingungen und Zugabe von Füllstoffen zu dem SiO2-Sol entscheidend die Porenstruktur der Immobilisierungsmatrix beeinflusst und den Anforderungen entsprechend eingestellt werden. Allerdings zeigte sich, dass diese Methode nicht für alle Mikroorganismen gleichermaßen geeignet ist. Trotz diverser kryoprotektiver Maßnahmen konnte keine ausreichende Überlebensrate für sensible Stämme wie Aquincola tertiaricarbonis L108 erzielt werden. Neben der Erhöhung der Makroporosität der SiO2-Matrix wurde versucht das Sol-Gel-Verfahren mit einem flexiblen organischen Polymer (Na-Alginat) zu kombinieren, um eine Immobilisierungsmatrix mit einem weichen Kern zu erzeugen, der Zellteilung zulässt. Als zusätzlicher Vorteil des entwickelten Alginat/SiO2-Hybridmaterials erwies sich, dass dieses auch auf einfache Weise mittels Drucktechniken in definierten Spots abgelegt werden kann und so die Zellen in Arrays abgelegt werden können. Das Potential dieser Methodik für die Entwicklung von Ganzzellsensoren wurde am Beispiel der Grünalge Chlorella vulgaris als Modell-Sensorzelle demonstriert und für die Detektion von Atrazin als Modellsubstanz eingesetzt.

Im Bereich der Umwelttechnik bieten sich vielversprechende Einsatzmöglichkeiten für Sol-Gel-immobilisierte Mikroorganismen sowohl für die Entfernung als auch für die Detektion von Schadstoffen an. Für einen effizienten Einsatz sind zum einen eine hohe Langzeitaktivität und -vitalität der eingebetteten Zellen als auch eine gute Lagerbeständigkeit wichtig. Neben einer hohen Makroporosität, die sowohl für einen guten Stoffaustausch mit der Umgebung sorgt sowie den Zellen Raum für Zellteilung bietet, ist vor allem auch die Aufrechterhaltung der Feuchtigkeit in der Immobilisierungsmatrix während der Immobilisierung, der Lagerung und des Einsatzes wichtig. Besonders vorteilhaft hat sich hier eine Immobilisierung in dünnen SiO2-Schichten auf Blähtonbruchstücken erwiesen, da dieses Trägermaterial neben einer hohen Makroporosität auch ein hohes Wasserspeichervermögen besitzt. Immobilisiert in dünnen SiO2-Schichten auf Blähton konnten diverse Schadstoff-abbauende Mikroorganismen mehrere Monate auch außerhalb eines flüssigen Mediums unter feuchten Bedingungen gelagert werden, ohne dass ihre Abbauleistung erheblich sank. Ein weiteres Verfahren um Immobilisierungsmaterialien mit überdurchschnittlich hoher Makroporosität bei gleichzeitig hoher Stabilität zu erzeugen, stellt das Freeze-Gelation Verfahren dar. Über einen Gefriertrocknungsschritt können hier zudem die zu immobilisierenden Zellen in eine trocken lagerfähige Form überführt werden, wodurch Handhabung sowie Lagerung und Transport vereinfacht werden. Außerdem kann durch Wahl der Einfrierbedingungen und Zugabe von Füllstoffen zu dem SiO2-Sol entscheidend die Porenstruktur der Immobilisierungsmatrix beeinflusst und den Anforderungen entsprechend eingestellt werden. Allerdings zeigte sich, dass diese Methode nicht für alle Mikroorganismen gleichermaßen geeignet ist. Trotz diverser kryoprotektiver Maßnahmen konnte keine ausreichende Überlebensrate für sensible Stämme wie Aquincola tertiaricarbonis L108 erzielt werden. Neben der Erhöhung der Makroporosität der SiO2-Matrix wurde versucht das Sol-Gel-Verfahren mit einem flexiblen organischen Polymer (Na-Alginat) zu kombinieren, um eine Immobilisierungsmatrix mit einem weichen Kern zu erzeugen, der Zellteilung zulässt. Als zusätzlicher Vorteil des entwickelten Alginat/SiO2-Hybridmaterials erwies sich, dass dieses auch auf einfache Weise mittels Drucktechniken in definierten Spots abgelegt werden kann und so die Zellen in Arrays abgelegt werden können. Das Potential dieser Methodik für die Entwicklung von Ganzzellsensoren wurde am Beispiel der Grünalge Chlorella vulgaris als Modell-Sensorzelle demonstriert und für die Detektion von Atrazin als Modellsubstanz eingesetzt.:Inhalt Abstract 1 Danksagung/Vorwort 2 Inhalt 4 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 6 Abbildungsverzeichnis 8 Tabellenverzeichnis 11 1 Einleitung und Motivation 12 1.1 Zielstellung der Arbeit 14 2 Grundlagen 16 2.1 Sol-Gel-Verfahren 16 2.1.1 Geschichte des Sol-Gel-Verfahrens 16 2.1.2 Chemische Grundlagen des Sol-Gel-Verfahrens 18 2.1.3 Prekursoren (Vorläufermaterialien) 19 2.1.3.1 Alkoxysilane (Siliciumalkoxide) 19 2.1.3.2 Alkalisilikate 23 2.1.4 Modifizierungsmöglichkeiten der SiO2-Matrix 24 2.1.4.1 Chemische Modifizierung 24 2.1.4.2 Physikalische Modifizierung 25 2.1.4.3 Organisch-anorganische Hybridmaterialien 26 2.1.4.4 Alginat/SiO2-Hybridmaterialien 26 2.2 Sol-Gel-Immobilisierung von Mikroorganismen 28 2.2.1 Sol-Gel-Beschichtung von Trägermaterialien 30 2.2.2 Sol-Gel-Immobilisierung in (Hydro-)Gelkörpern 33 2.2.2.1 Sonderform: Freeze-Gelation-Formkörper 35 2.2.3 Sol-Gel-Immobilisierung mittels Drucktechniken 37 3 Material und Methoden 38 3.1 Mikroorganismen 38 3.2 Freeze-Gelation-Verfahren 39 3.2.1 Zellimmobilisierung 39 3.2.2 Kryoprotektektive Maßnahmen 40 3.2.3 Charakterisierung der Freeze-Gelation-Formkörper 40 3.2.4 Aktivitätsuntersuchung – Schadstoffabbau 41 3.3 Beschichtung von Trägermaterialien 42 3.3.1 Synthese des SiO2-Sols 42 3.3.2 Vorbehandlung der Trägermaterialien 42 3.3.3 Zellimmobilisierung 42 3.3.4 Charakterisierung der Trägermaterialien 43 3.3.5 Aktivitätsuntersuchung – Schadstoffabbau 44 3.4 Alginat/SiO2-Hybridgele 44 3.4.1 Synthese amino-funktionalisierter SiO2-Sole 44 3.4.1.1 Charakterisierung der amino-funktionalisierten SiO2-Sole 45 3.4.2 Vernetzung von Na-Alginat mit amino-funktionalisiertem SiO2-So (Erzeugung von Alginat/SiO2-Hydrogelen) 45 3.4.2.1 Vorbehandlung der Trägermaterialien 45 3.4.2.2 Charakterisierung der Alginat/SiO2-Hydrogele 46 3.4.3 Zellimmobilisierung 47 3.4.3.1 Charakterisierung der immobilisierten Zellen 48 3.4.4 Aktivitätsuntersuchung – Schadstoffdetektion 48 3.4.4.1 PAM-Fluorometer: Atrazin 48 4 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 50 4.1 Lösungsstrategien 50 4.2 Freeze-Gelation-Formkörper 54 4.3 Sol-Gel-Beschichtung von Trägermaterialien 65 4.4 Alginat/SiO2-Hybridmaterialien 74 4.5 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse 93 5 Schlussfolgerung und Ausblick 99 6 Literaturverzeichnis 102 7 Verzeichnis eigener Publikationen 109 ANHANG 111

Thesis (MSc (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Much of South African lowland fynbos vegetation has been transformed by agriculture and invasive alien grass species. The artificial reduction of plant available N and P levels in soils, through the addition of carbon and calcium respectively, may provide a means of retarding the growth of alien grasses stimulated by soil nutrient enrichment. Furthermore, the competitive advantage of native lowland fynbos species adapted to nutrient impoverished soils may be increased by these additions. The above premise was tested in both field- and greenhouse-based trials by applying systemic and contact herbicides to reduce the large alien invasive grass biomass. This was followed by the addition of C as sucrose and Ca as gypsum to reduce plant available N and P respectively in the soils. The effects of these combined herbicide and soil nutrient amendment treatments on plant physiology and growth were examined in both resident alien and indigenous species and in several herbaceous and woody native species introduced as seeds and seedlings. Also, soils sampled from the different treatments in both trials were chemically analyzed. There was a total absence of seedling recruitment from seeds of all 9 indigenous species sown into soils in the field-based trial while introduced juveniles of another 9 indigenous species displayed a high mortality during the dry summer season. These detrimental effects were less severe in the greenhouse-based trial which received more regular watering and where successful seedling recruitment from seeds sown occurred in four indigenous species. Sucrose additions, both exclusively and in combination with gypsum, caused significant reductions in foliar chlorophyll, photosystem II (PSII) function and above-ground biomass of most resident and introduced alien and indigenous species. These reductions were less prominent where herbicides were applied, a possible consequence of N and P supplementation of soils by the decomposing plant biomass. This was supported by the elevated soil K, Na and N concentrations measured in soils where contact and systemic herbicides were applied. However, no significant changes in soil N or P were apparent following sucrose and gypsum additions respectively, the latter attributed to the acidic soils which precluded the formation of insoluble P complexes. A second study tested the hypothesis that exogenous sucrose addition to soils inhibits plant growth by stimulating soil microbial biomass which accumulates soil nitrogen rendering it unavailable to plants. Two native, early seral species (Dimorphotheca pluvialus (L.) Moench and Ursinia anthemoides (L) Poir. subsp anthemoides) were cultured in heat sterilized (2200C for 72 hours) and non-sterilized soils in a greenhouse under four different levels of sucrose (0, 100, 200 and 300 g m-2) supplied monthly over a four-month active growing period. Foliar chlorophyll iii contents, photosystem II (PSII) efficiencies, shoot and root lengths and dry mass, inflorescence numbers and N and P contents were measured in the plants, and N and P contents and bacterial cell and coliform numbers analyzed in the soils. Both D. pluvialis and U. anthemoides displayed significant reductions in PSII efficiency, chlorophyll content, accumulation of biomass and N and P in response increased levels of sucrose, which initially seemingly supported the hypothesis as these reductions were of substantially greater magnitude in plants cultivated in non-sterilized than sterilized soils. Despite this, there was no evidence of any significant increases in bacterial and coliform cell numbers in response to increased levels of sucrose supplied or any significant reductions in soil N and P contents following sucrose additions in both sterile and non-sterilized soils. Greater numbers of bacteria and coliforms were measured in sterilized than non-sterilized soils which corresponded with reduced soil N contents but these were not reflected in like changes in plant PSII efficiency and growth and total amounts of N taken up by plants which displayed massive increases in sterilized soils. The findings did not support the hypothesis and pointed to an abiotic mechanism of sucrose inhibition of plant photosynthesis and growth. The study concludes that the suitability of adding sucrose and gypsum to degraded renosterveld ecosystem soils to promote the competitiveness of native taxa against alien grasses is dubious. Other restoration alternatives such as natural re-colonization, transfer of soils containing viable seeds from pristine communities and top soil removal should be considered. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Baie van Suid Afrika se laagland fynbos plantegroei is verander deur landbou en uitheemse indringer grasspesies. Die kunsmatige reduksie van plantbeskikbare N en P vlakke in die grond deur die toevoeging van koolstof en kalsium onderskeidelik, kan ’n metode wees om die groei van indringer grasse te vertraag, wat gestimuleer word deur grondvoedingstofverryking. Die kompeterende voordeel van die inheemse laagland fynbosspesies wat aangepas is tot voedingstofarme grond kan verhoog word deur die toevoegings. Bogenoemde postulaat is in beide die veld- en die glashuis-gebaseerde eksperimente getoets deur die aanwending van sistemiese en kontak onkruiddoder om die groot indringer grasbiomassa te verminder gevolg deur die byvoeging van C as sukrose en Ca as gips om die plantbeskibare N en P onderskeidelik te verminder in die grond. Die effekte van die gekombineerde onkruiddoder en grondvoedingstof verbeteringsbehandelings op die fisiologie en groei van die plante is ondersoek in beide inheemse- en residente indringerspesies asook in verskeie kruidagtige- en houtagtige inheemse spesies wat aangeplant was as sade en saailinge. Grondmonsters van die verskillende behandelings in beide studies was versamel en was chemies geanaliseer. Daar was ’n definitiewe afwesigheid van nuwe saailinge van sade van al nege indringerspesies wat gesaai was in grond in die veldgebaseerde studie, en saailinge van nog nege inheemse spesies het ’n hoë mortaliteit getoon gedurende die droë somerseisoen. Hierdie skadelike effekte was minder ernstig in die glashuisgebaseerde studie wat meer benat was, en waar nuwe saailinge suksesvol geproduseer was deur sade in vier inheemse spesies. Sukrose byvoegings, beide uitgesluit en in kombinasie met gips, het ’n afname in blaarchlorofil, fotosisteem II en bogrondse biomassa van die meeste van die residente en aangeplante indringer- en inheemse spesies getoon. Hierdie afnames was minder prominent waar onkruiddoder aangewend was, ’n moontlke oorsaak van N en P aanvulling van grond deur die verrottende plantbiomassa. Dit word ondersteun deur verghoogde grond K, Na en N konsentrasies, gemeet in grond waar kontak en sistemiese onkruiddoder toegevoeg was. Geen noemenswaardige veranderinge in grond N of P was sigbaar na byvoeging van sukrose en gips onderskeidelik nie. Laasgenoemde het bygedra tot suuragtige grond wat die formasie van onoplosbare P komplekse verkom het. ‘n Tweede studie het die hipotese getoets waar eksogene sukrose byvoeging tot grond plantegroei inhibeer deur die grond mikrobe biomassa te stimuleer wat akkumuleer wat in grond stikstof en dit nie beskikbaar maak vir plante nie.Twee inheemse vroeë intermediêre stadium spesies (Dimorphotheca pluvialus (L.) Moench en Ursinia anthemoides (L) Poir. subsp v anthemoides) was gekweek in hitte gesteriliseerde grond (2200 C vir 72 uur) en in nie-gesteriliseerde grond in ’n glashuis onder vier verskillende vlakke van van sukrose (0, 100, 200 en 300 g m-2) bygevoeg maandeliks oor ‘n 4 maande aktiewe groei periode. Blaarchlorofilinhoud, fotosisteem II (FS II) doeltreffendheid, groeipunt en wortel lengte en droë massa, blomgetalle en N en P inhoud was gemeet in die plante sowel as N en P inhoud en bakteriële sel en kolivorm getalle was geanaliseer in die grond. Beide D. pluvialis en U . anthemoides het ’n afname getoon in FS II doeltreffendheid, chlorofilinhoud, biomassa akkumulasie, N en P response op verhoogde vlakke van sukrose, wat aanvanklik aangetoon het dat dit die hipotese ondersteun want hierdie afnames wat heelwat groter in plante wat gekweek was in ongesteriliseerde grond as in gesteriliseerde grond. Daar was geen toename in baketriële en kolivorm sel getalle in rssponse tot verhoogde vlakke van sukrose byvoegings of enige noemenswaardige in grond N en P inhoud na byvoeging van sukrose in beide steriele en nie-steriele grond nie. Groot getalle bakterieë en kolivorme was gemeet in gesteriliseerde grond as in ongesteriliseerde grond. Dit korrespondeer met verminderde grond N inhoud maar dit was nie gereflekteer in veranderinge in plant FS II doeltreffendheid, groei en die totale hoeveelhede N wat opgeneem was deur plante wat ’n massiewe toename getoon het ongesteriliseerde grond nie. Hierdie bevindings het nie die hipotese ondersteun nie en het gewys na ’n abiotiese meganisme van sukrose inhibisie van plant fotosintese en groei. Die studie lei dus af dat die geskiktheid om sukrose en gips by te voeg tot gedegradeerde renosterveld ekosisteemgrond om kompetisie tussen inheemse plante en indringer grasse te promoveer, twyfelagtig is. Ander restorasie alternatiewe soos natuurlike herkolonisasie, oordrag van grond wat lewensvatbare sade bevat van onbeskadigde gemeenskappe en bogrond verwydering word oorweeg.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo sintetizar e caracterizar uma matriz híbrida estável de poli(estireno-co-divinilbenzeno) magnetizado pela adição de magnetita (Fe3O4) e avaliar seu potencial como suporte para a imobilização de lipases. A matriz híbrida foi sintetizado pela técnica de polimerização em suspensão utilizando dos monômeros de estireno e divinilbenzeno e ao qual foram adicionadas partículas de magnetita preparadas por coprecipitação dos íons Fe+2 e Fe+3. A caracterização foi realizada pelas técnicas de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia na região do infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR), difratometria de raios-X (DRX) e magnetização de amostra vibrante (VSM), comparando os materiais magnetizados e não magnetizados. Os biocatalisadores foram preparados pela imobilização da lipase de Candida rugosa (LCR) e lipase PS Burkholderia cepacia (LPS) via adsorção física e foram caracterizados em função da influência de pH e temperatura na atividade hidrolítica, parâmetros cinéticos, estabilidade térmica, estabilidade operacional e estabilidade de estocagem. O derivado de LCR foi aplicado em reações de esterificação e o derivado de LPS em reações de transesterificação. Os resultados obtidos pelas análises de FTIR, DRX e VSM confirmaram que a magnetita foi incorporada ao polímero, gerando atração das partículas por um campo magnético externo. A caracterização bioquímica indicou forte influência do pH na atividade hidrolítica, apresentando ponto ótimo próximo a 8,0 tanto para as lipases livres quanto imobilizadas. Os biocatalisadores magnetizados preparados apresentaram bom desempenho em todos os aspectos, o derivado da lipase de Candida rugosa alcançou conversões entre 89-94% nas reações de esterificação, revelando tempo de meia vida de t1/2=52 dias na estabilidade operacional. O derivado de Burkholderia cepacia atingiu rendimentos próximos a 80% nas reações de transesterificação com t1/2=40 dias. A imobilização aumentou a estabilidade térmica das lipases em 50 vezes no caso da LCR e em 2,3 vezes para a LPS. Estes resultados indicam que o material híbrido magnetizado sintetizado possui grande potencial para ser utilizado como suporte na imobilização de enzimas com aplicação em reações de interesse industrial. / This study aimed to synthesize and characterize a stable hybrid matrix of poly (styrene-codivinylbenzene) magnetized by the addition of magnetite (Fe3O4) and evaluate its potential for application in the immobilization of lipases, by characterization of the prepared biocatalysts. The support was synthesized by the suspension polymerization technique by applying styrene and divinylbenzene monomers and adding magnetite particles synthesized by co-precipitation of Fe + 2 and Fe + 3. The characterization of the material was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), vibrating sample magnetization (VSM), by comparison of the magnetized and the not magnetized particles. The biocatalysts were prepared by immobilization of lipase from Candida rugosa (CRL) and lipase from Burkholderia cepacia (Lipase PS) via physical adsorption and they were characterized according to the influence of pH and temperature on the hydrolytic activity, kinetic parameters, thermal stability, operational stability and storage stability. The CRL derivative was applied in esterification reactions and the lipase PS derivative was applied in transesterification reactions. The results obtained by the analysis FTIR, XRD and VSM confirmed the magnetite was successfully incorporated into the polymer and generated the atraction for an external magnetic field. Biochemical characterization indicated a strong influence of pH on the hydrolytic activity, showing better results on pH around 8,0 for free and both immobilized lipases. The magnetized biocatalysts prepared had good performance in all respects, derivative from Candida rugosa lipase reached 89-94% conversion in esterification reactions showing half-life of operational stability t1 / 2 = 52 days. The immobilized lipase from Burkholderia cepacia reached yields close to 80% in transesterification reactions presenting t1/2 = 40 days. Immobilization increased the thermal stability of lipase by 50 times in the case of CRL and 2,3 times for Lipase PS. These results indicate that the magnetized hybrid material synthesized has great potential to be used as a support for the immobilization of enzymes for use in reactions of industrial interest.

O tetracloroeteno (PCE), um dos principais contaminantes de águas subterrâneas, é uma molécula recalcitrante, com toxicidade elevada. Processos de biorremediação de água ou solo contaminados com PCE são normalmente limitados pela baixa eficiência de microrganismos sabidamente envolvidos em sua degradação. No entanto, a prospecção de novos microrganismos, mais eficientes na degradação do PCE é uma alternativa para otimizar esses processos. Os objetivos deste estudo foram desenvolver uma técnica de biorremediação utilizando um reator horizontal de leito fixo (RHLF) contendo consórcios de microrganismos eficientes na degradação do PCE, e caracterizar a via de degradação do PCE utilizada pelo consórcio selecionado. Para tanto, amostras de sedimento de dois poços de monitoramento de água foram coletadas de uma metalúrgica com histórico de contaminação com PCE. Os sedimentos foram imobilizados, acondicionados em RHLFs específicos e submetidos a cultivo de enriquecimento em meio mínimo suplementado com PCE. A estrutura das comunidades e a diversidade bacteriana dos RHLFs foram avaliadas e comparadas com as amostras do PM1 e PM2, por PCR-DGGE e sequenciamento de bibliotecas de clones do gene rRNA 16S. Os resultados evidenciaram a seleção de populações bacterianas no RHLF contendo o inóculo do PM1 (In1) após o cultivo de enriquecimento, enquanto no RHLF contendo o inóculo do PM2 (In2), a estrutura da comunidade bacteriana não diferiu daquela observada no PM2. Ensaios de degradação do PCE nos RHLFs, usando cromatografia gasosa associada à espectrometria de massas (CG/EM), mostraram, após 12 horas, uma eficiência de 87 % na degradação do PCE no reator com In1 e 96 % no reator com In2. Foi feito o isolamento e identificação, por sequenciamento do gene rRNA 16S, das bactérias dos RHLFs, sendo identificados 4 isolados do In1, similares a Burkholderia sp., Pseudomonas stutzeri, P. oryzihabitans e Stenotrophomonas maltophilia e 7 isolados do In2, similares a Microbacterium trichotecenenolyticum, S. maltophilia, Klebsiella sp., Exiguobacterium acetylicum, P. oryzihabitans, Acinetobacter junii e Comamonas sp. Compostos orgânicos voláteis nos reatores com In1 e In2 foram analisados por CG/EM, identificando a produção de clorofórmio (TCM) e 1,1,1-tricloroetano (TCA) como produtos da degradação do PCE. Consórcios formados por bactérias isoladas dos reatores In1 (IIn1) e In2 (IIn2) foram imobilizados e acondicionados em RHLFs distintos para avaliar o potencial dos mesmos na degradação do PCE. Após 12 horas, 92 % do PCE foi degradado nos reatores com IIn1 e IIn2, com produção de TCM e TCA. Testes de degradação usando células em suspensão foram conduzidos para avaliar a eficiência de cada isolado na degradação do PCE. O isolado I8 do In2 (I8In2), identificado como Comamonas sp., teve 68 % de eficiência na degradação do PCE. Ensaios com inibidor de monoxigenases do citocromo P-450 (1-aminobenzotriazole) mostraram que a degradação do PCE nos RHLFs, contendo IIn1, IIn2 e I8In2, foram dependentes dessa enzima. Como conclusão, nós identificamos uma nova via de degradação do PCE altamente eficiente, aeróbia e mediada por monoxigenases e isolamos cepas bacterianas que podem ser usadas como consórcios imobilizados nos RHLFs como uma alternativa eficiente na remediação de áreas contaminadas com PCE. / Tetrachloroethene (PCE), one of the main contaminants of groundwater, is a recalcitrant molecule with high toxicity. Bioremediation processes of water or soil contaminated with PCE are usually limited by the low efficiency of microorganisms known to be involved in its degradation. However, the exploration of new and more efficient microorganisms in the degradation of PCE is an alternative to optimize these processes. The objectives of these studies were to develop a bioremediation technique using horizontal fixed bed reactor (HFBR) containing microbial consortia effective in the PCE degradation, and to characterize the PCE degradation pathway used by the selected consortium. For that, sediment samples of two groundwater monitoring wells were collected from a metallurgical plant with historical of PCE contamination. The sediments were immobilized, packed in specific HFBRs and subjected to enrichment in minimal medium supplemented with PCE. The bacterial community structure and diversity in the HFBRs were evaluated and compared to samples from the MW1 and MW2, by PCR-DGGE and sequencing of 16S rRNA gene clone libraries. The results revealed the selection of bacterial populations in the HFBR containing inoculum from MW1 (In1) after enrichment, while in the HFBRs containing inoculum from MW2 (In2), the bacterial community structure did not differ from that observed in MW2. Tests of PCE degradation in HFBRs using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) showed, after 12 hours, an efficiency of 87 % in the PCE degradation in the In1 reactor and 96 % in the In2 reactor. Bacteria from HFBR were isolated and identified by sequencing of 16S rRNA gene, and 4 isolates from In1, similar to Burkholderia sp., Pseudomonas stutzeri, P. oryzihabitans and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and 7 isolates from In2, similar to Microbacterium trichotecenenolyticum, S. maltophilia, Klebsiella sp., Exiguobacterium acetylicum, P. oryzihabitans, Acinetobacter junii and Comamonas sp. were identified. Volatile organic compounds in the reactors with In1 and In2 were analyzed by GC/MS, showing the production of chloroform (TCM) and 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) as PCE degradation products. Consortia composed of bacteria isolated from the In1 (IIn1) and In2 (IIn2) reactors were immobilized and packed in distinct HFBRs to evaluate the potential of specific consortia in PCE degradation. After 12 hours, 92 % of PCE was degraded in reactors with IIn1 and IIn2, with the production of TCM and TCA. Degradation tests using cells suspension were conducted to evaluate the efficiency of each isolate in PCE degradation. Isolate I8 from In2 (I8In2), identified as Comamonas sp., showed 68 % efficiency in the PCE degradation. Assays using inhibitor of monooxygenases cytochrome P-450 (1-aminobenzotriazole) showed that the PCE degradation in HFBRs containing IIn1, IIn2 and I8In2 were dependent of this enzyme. In conclusion, we have identified a new highly efficient PCE degradation pathway, aerobic and mediated by monooxygenases, and isolated bacterial strains that may be used as consortia which immobilized in HFBRs as an efficient alternative in the remediation of PCE contaminated areas.

Uma das estratégias utilizadas no desenvolvimento de novas drogas envolve a descoberta de compostos que modulem a atividade de enzimas, importantes no processo infeccioso de patógenos. Uma abordagem interessante na triagem de novos ligantes é o uso de métodos baseados na imobilização de enzimas em suportes cromatográficos acoplados a sistemas de cromatografia líquida. O uso de IMERs (Immobilized Enzyme Reactors) como uma fase estacionária acoplado a sistemas de cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência consiste em uma estratégia para triagem de compostos rápida e eficiente e tem vantagens em relação ao uso de enzimas em solução. A enzima NTPDase-1 de Trypanosoma cruzi age como um facilitador da infecção do patógeno, inibindo assim a resposta imune do hospedeiro, permitindo uma infecção silenciosa, o que sugere seu uso como um bom alvo na busca por inibidores. Neste trabalho, a enzima NTPDase-1 foi imobilizada na parede interna de capilares de sílica fundida formando ICERs (Immobilized Capillary Enzyme Reactors). Estudos das condições de uso destes biorreatores juntamente com o desenvolvimento de um método cromatográfico multidimensional, foram realizados e validados. A otimização do método cromatográfico e sua validação, apresentaram ótimos resultados em relação aos valores obtidos para os parâmetros avaliados para métodos bioanalíticos. A imobilização da enzima foi realizada com sucesso, sendo possível a detecção da atividade catalítica no sistema cromatográfico (TcNTPDase1-ICER). Foi realizado também, o estudo cinético para ATP no TcNTPDase1-ICER, obtendo-se KM de 0,317 ± 0,044 mM, que comparado com estudos em solução, KM de 0,096 mM, ainda apresenta grande afinidade pelo substrato. / One of the strategies used in the development of new drugs involves the discovery of compounds that modulate the activity of enzymes, important in the infectious pathogens process. An interesting approach in the screening of new ligands is the use of methods based on immobilization of enzymes in chromatographic supports coupled to liquid chromatography systems. The use of IMERs (Immobilized Enzyme Reactors) as a stationary phase coupled to high performance chromatographic systems consist in a strategy to a fast and efficient compounds screening and it has advantages comparing to the use of enzymes in solution. The enzyme NTPDase-1 Trypanosoma cruzi acts as a pathogen infection facilitator, thus inhibits the host immune response allowing a silent infection, suggesting its use as a good target in the search for inhibitors. In this paper, the enzyme NTPDase-1 was immobilized for the manufacturing of ICERs (Immobilized Capillary Enzyme Reactors). Studies of conditions to the use of these bioreactors in the ligands screening along with the development of a multidimensional chromatographic method were performed and validated. The chromatographic method optimization and validation, presented excellent results, relating to the obtained values, from evaluated parameters in bioanalytical methods. The enzyme immobilization was successfully performed, being possible to detect the catalytic activity in the chromatographic system (TcNTPDase1-ICER). The kinetic study for the substrate ATP was also performed in the TcNTPDase1-ICER, obtaining KM of 0.317 ± 0.044 mM, which in comparison with studies in solution KM of 0.096 mM, still presents high affinity for the substrate.

As caprilinas são acilgliceróis de cadeia média com diversas aplicações nos campos alimentício, farmacêutico e cosmético. A esterificação direta é um processo importante para a síntese de caprilinas, dado que o glicerol é subproduto da produção de biodiesel e que a tricaprilina, material de partida para a glicerólise e hidrólise, não é um composto abundante naturalmente. As reações existentes para a síntese de acilgliceróis podem ser catalisadas por via química ou enzimática, sendo esta última superior em diversos aspectos. Dois dos principais contrapontos à utilização de enzimas são seu alto custo e dificuldade de recuperação. A imobilização de enzimas é uma das maneiras existentes para contornar estas questões. A maioria dos estudos científicos relativos à obtenção destes compostos refere-se aos acilgliceróis de cadeia longa. Portanto, é necessário aprimorar a esterificação direta entre o glicerol e ácido caprílico catalisada por lipase, através da compreensão da cinética reacional e da influência dos parâmetros reacionais. A existência de uma metodologia de separação, identificação e quantificação simples e eficaz também é importante, tornando as pesquisas relacionadas às caprilinas mais rápidas e menos complicadas. Desta maneira, este trabalho consistiu de três etapas principais: (1) a imobilização de lipases em resinas de troca aniônica, visando reduzir os custos em relação à lipase imobilizada comercial; (2) o desenvolvimento de um método de cromatografia em camada delgada capaz de quantificar as caprilinas formadas; (3) o estudo da reação de esterificação para a obtenção de caprilinas em regime descontínuo e descontínuo-alimentado. A resina DOWEX® 1X2-400 foi a que apresentou a melhor eficiência de imobilização (EI) da Palatase®. Sua atividade lipolítica foi apenas 12,7% inferior à versão imobilizada comercial da lipase, a Lipozyme®RM IM, indicando a viabilidade de substituição desta última. O desenvolvimento de método de cromatografia em camada delgada resultou em relações lineares para a detecção e quantificação de ácido caprílico, monocaprilina, dicaprilina e tricaprilina com R2 e R2pred de 99,3%/98,73%; 98,9%/97,6%; 99,8%/99,8% e 99,7%/99,5%, respectivamente, e com valor-p de 0,000. As reações em regime descontínuo foram realizadas seguindo planejamento fatorial completo, no qual foram variadas a temperatura (30 ou 70°C), a proporção molar entre os reagentes (1:1 ou 3:1 - ácido caprílico : glicerol) e o tempo reacional (6 ou 10h). A análise de regressão do rendimento reacional expresso em porcentagem de consumo de ácido caprílico indicou que, nestas condições, os fatores relevantes para o resultado final são a temperatura e a proporção molar, bem como a interação entre eles. As melhores condições para a obtenção de mono e dicaprilinas foram, portanto, de 30ºC e razão molar de 1:1. O estudo da cinética da reação indica que 40,4% do ácido caprílico são consumidos na primeira hora e que o consumo máximo ocorre na terceira hora de reação. Houve uma queda drástica no rendimento reacional, quando a reação foi conduzida em regime descontínuo-alimentado, provavelmente devido à menor eficiência catalítica da lipase devido ao baixo teor de água na primeira hora de reação. / Caprylins are medium chain acylglycerols that find several applications in food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields. Direct esterification is an important route for the synthesis of caprylins, since glycerol is a byproduct of biodiesel production and tricaprylin, the starting material of glycerolysis and hydrolysis, is not a naturally abundant compound. The glycerides synthesis can be catalyzed by either chemical or enzymatic routes, the latter being superior in several aspects. The biggest issues regarding the use of enzymes are their high cost and difficult recovery. Using immobilized enzymes can minimize these concerns. Most of scientific studies concerning the obtainment of these compounds address to long chain acyglycerols. Thus, the improvement of lipase catalyzed esterification of glycerol and caprylic acid is necessary, by understanding the reaction kinetics and the role of reaction parameters. A simple and effective method of separation, identification and quantification of caprylins is also a relevant contributing factor for easier and faster researches. Therefore, this work consisted of three main steps: (1) immobilization of lipases on anion exchange resins in order to produce a cheaper alternative to imported commercial immobilized lipases; (2) development of a thin layer chromatographic method capable of quantifying caprylins; (3) studying the obtainment of caprylins by direct esterification in batch and fed batch systems. DOWEX® 1X2-400 resin presented the best immobilization efficiency (IE) results. Additionally, its lipolytic activity was only 12.7% lower than the commercial Lipozyme® RM IM, suggesting that Lipozyme\'s substitution is feasible. Regarding the developing of a thin layer chromatography method, linear correlations were obtained for detection and quantification of caprylic acid, monocaprylin, dicaprylin and tricaprylin, with a R2 and R2pred of 99,3%/98,73%; 98,9%/97,6%; 99,8%/99,8% e 99,7%/99,5%, respectively, with a p-value of 0,000. The batch reactions were carried out according to a complete factorial design, in which the temperature (30 or 70ºC), the molar ratio between the reagents (1:1 or 3:1) and reaction time (6h or 10h) were varied. The regression analysis of reactional yield expressed in terms of percentage of caprylic acid consumption indicated that only the temperature, molar-ratio and their interaction were important for reaction yields, within the studied conditions. The best conditions related to the obtainment of mono and dicaprylins were 30ºC and molar ratio of 1:1. The reaction kinetics indicates that 40.4% of the caprylic acid is consumed within one hour of reaction and that the maximal consumption was achieved in the third hour. A drastic drop in reaction yield was observed when the fed batch mode was adopted, probably due a lower catalytic efficiency presented by lipase as a result of the lower water content in the first hour of reaction.