Pour répondre à un enjeu de santé publique, les entreprises de charcuterie ont fortement réduit la teneur en sel dans leurs produits cuits. Cette thèse avait pour objectif d’apporter des éléments scientifiques qui permettent de répondre à la question suivante : jusqu’où est-il possible de diminuer la teneur en sel sans affecter la qualité du jambon cuit supérieur fabriqué sans polyphosphate ? Le travail s’est intéressé au traitement thermique et à deux phénomènes clés pour la qualité du jambon cuit : l’adhésion entre les muscles, qui permet d’assurer ensuite la tenue de tranche, et le transfert de masse qui définit le rendement à la cuisson de l’opération. L’adhésion de deux pièces de viande est liée à la formation d’un limon qui gélifie lors du traitement thermique. Notre étude confirme que la présence d’une faible teneur en sel améliore significativement l’adhésion. Par contre, dès que la concentration en sel dans la viande dépasse 0,8%, l’adhésion ne varie plus dans les conditions de malaxage imposées. Les résultats ont été interprétés par le fait que l’augmentation de la teneur en sel n’était pas suffisante pour modifier l’état de liaison entre le gel et la surface de la viande, là où se situerait la rupture. L’étude sur les transferts de masse confirme que la présence de sel entraîne une diminution des pertes de poids à la cuisson. Mais, dès que du sel est ajouté, l’effet de sa concentration sur la perte de poids est négligeable. Ainsi, dans nos conditions expérimentales, il serait possible de réduire la teneur en sel dans le jambon cuit jusqu’à 0,8% sans affecter le rendement de l’opération et l’adhésion. Un modèle a été développé afin de prédire, d’une part, les pertes de poids à la cuisson de produits faiblement salés et, d’autre part, leur sécurité microbiologique à l’issue du traitement thermique. Le modèle a permis de prédire l’effet des différents scenarii de fabrication sur le rendement et la valeur pasteurisatrice. Il pourra être utilisé pour optimiser la fabrication de produits de charcuterie cuite à faible teneur en sel. / Faced to public health issues, the charcuterie industries have begun to decrease salt content of the cooked products. This phD-work aimed at bringing scientific responses to know how far the salt content can be reduced in the cooked ham made without polyphosphate. The work was focused on the thermal treatment and on two key phenomena for the cooked ham quality: adhesion between muscles, which ensures ham sliceability and mass transfer, which determines the cooking yield. Adhesion between meat pieces is related to the tumbling exudate, which forms gel during the thermal treatment. Our study confirms that a low added salt content significantly increases adhesion, comparing to no added salt. However, as soon as the salt concentration in meat is greater than 0.8%, no impact on adhesion is observed under our tumbling conditions. The results have been interpreted by the fact that the increase of salt content is not sufficient to reinforce the bindings between the gel and the meat surface, where the rupture certainly takes place. The study of mass transfer confirms that adding salt leads to a decrease in the cooking loss. But, as soon as salt is added, the effect of its concentration is negligible. Under our experimental conditions, it would thus be possible to reduce the salt content in cooked ham to 0.8% without affecting cooking yield and adhesion. A model was built to predict the cooking loss in low salted pork meat and microbial safety after the thermal treatment. This model was used to predict the cooking yield and the pasteurizing value during different scenarios issued from the industries. Model can be used to optimize the industrial production of cooked ham which has been slightly salted.

Experimental studies into the use of cold atmospheric plasmas for inactivating foodborne pathogens are presented in this thesis. Eliminating the possibility that treatment delivered by a plasma to a population or assemblage of micro-organisms is unevenly distributed is an essential pre-requisite to attempting to interpret inactivation kinetics with a view to elucidating mechanisms of inactivation. A filtration method of depositing cells evenly on the surface of a membrane without cell stacking was developed and used throughout the work described here. Two atmospheric plasma systems were evaluated and each brought about microbial inactivation in a distinct way. A pulsed radio frequency plasma jet operated at 3.47 MHz caused gross morphological changes to L. innocua whereas a low frequency air mesh plasma system operated at a frequency of 24 kHz led to the inactivation of these bacteria without inducing observable structural changes. Changing the operating parameters of the plasma jet system had a significant effect on the composition of the reactive plasma species generated as revealed by changes to the mode of inactivation of bacteria. In addition to inactivating bacteria, the pulsed plasma jet was shown to be highly effective in degrading and removing amyloid aggregates from the surface of mica coupons. Amyloids have widely been used as a non-infectious model for prions, and the results obtained here show potential for the application of gas plasma technology for removing prions from abiotic surfaces in medical and other applications. It has widely been assumed that bacterial envelopes are the principal sites at which reactive plasma species bring about damage to cells. However, changing the composition of the bacterial membranes of E. coli and Listeria innocua by cultivating them at widely different temperatures to induce changes proved not to result in enhanced inactivation. Flow cytometry was also used to provide additional insights into possible mechanisms of inactivation. The following fluorescent dyes were used either singly or in combination; SYTO 13, DiBAC4(3), cFDA and PI. The results obtained with the dyes DiBAC4(3) and PI showed that Gram positive bacteria became depolarised prior to the bacterial membrane becoming compromised, possibly suggesting that the inactivating plasma species are affecting membrane proteins responsible for maintaining the bacterial charge. Differences between the fluorescent dye staining of Gram negative and Gram positive species were obtained using SYTO13 and PI demonstrating that the different membrane structures affect their interaction with the plasma. In additional studies, the air mesh plasma was used to treat multi-drug resistant strains of Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an attempt to reverse antibiotic resistance. MRSA PM 64 was shown to reverse its antibiotic resistance to Oxacillin, Kanamycin and Trimethoprim. Culturing the bacteria in a nutrient limited media led to increased resistance towards plasma treatment and maintenance of their high levels of antibiotic resistance.

The weakly electric fish Sternopygus macrurus emits an electric organ discharge (EOD) composed of a series of pulses. The EOD pulse is mainly shaped by sodium currents. There are two sodium channel α subunits orthologs of the mammalian Nav1.4 expressed in the EO of Sternopygus. Previous studies identified a novel splice variant of the Nav1.4b (Nav1.4bL), in which an extra 51-amino acid occurs in the N terminal end. Nav1.4bL currents inactivate and recover from inactivation significantly faster than Nav1.4bS. The voltage-dependence of steady-state inactivation of smNav1.4bL shifts to hyperpolarized potential. Structural analysis predicts an α-helix in the middle of the extended N terminus. Removal of a proline right after the α-helix significantly slows down current decay but has no effect on channel recovery from inactivation, suggesting inactivation and recovery have independent mechanism. Mutagenesis analysis of the extended N terminus showed that the short helical region, especially the positive charges in the helix, is an important determinant for channel voltage-dependence of steady-state inactivation. However, other residues outside the helical region are required for regulation of fast inactivation and recovery form inactivation. Functional and structural analysis provides evidence for the importance of the C terminus in fish Nav1.4b channel properties. Chimera in which the C terminus of smNav1.4bS was substituted by the human Nav1.4 C terminus, shows an 11 mV positive shift in voltage-dependence of activation and a -16 mV negative shift in inactivation. Deletion of the distal half of smNav1.4bS negatively shifted voltage-dependence of inactivation and significantly accelerated channel recovery from inactivation. In the deletion mutant, the regulation by the N segment is missing. Substitution of the C terminus mutant retains wild type channel inactivation and recovery properties and can be regulated by N segment again. My study provides evidence that the extended N terminus of smNav1.4bL binds the distal part of C terminal tail to modulate channel inactivation properties. This is the first time to show the distal C terminus is involved in channel recovery from inactivation. Studies in the fish sodium channel properties provide useful information to understand function and structure of voltage-gated sodium channels. / text

Gut microbiota is important for our health and well-being, but when its composition is disrupted, it can induce or perpetuate several chronic inflammatory disorders, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). The mechanisms which distinguish protective microbes from the deleterious or indifferent ones are largely unknown. The aim of this thesis was to study the interaction of the immune system with microbes that have different relationships to IBD pathogenesis. Escherichia coli is a predominant aerobic microorganism of the gastrointestinal tract. This species includes microbes implicated in induction of IBD as well as in its therapy. Four E. coli strains with different relations to IBD were selected for our experiments: E. coli Nissle 1917 (EcN), which has been successfully used in IBD therapy, E. coli strains LF82 and p19A, which have been implicated in the pathogenesis of IBD, and E. coli strain K6, which has neither been implicated in pathogenesis nor in protection from this disease. The experiments were performed both with living bacteria and inactivated ones. As the mode of inactivation may change the microbial antigenic structure, we measured how different methods of inactivation, i.e. 1% formaldehyde, exposure to heat or UV irradiation, influence the microbe's immunogenicity. First, we...

Thesis advisor: Michael Numan / Maternal behavior is a primary social characteristic of mammals. By studying maternal behavior in rats, broader inferences can be made about the neural circuits that influence maternal behavior in other mammals, including humans. Maternal behavior of rats includes nest building, pup grooming, nursing, and pup retrieval. The projections from the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus (MPOA) to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the mesolimbic dopamine system are known to regulate maternal behavior in post-partum rats. The aim of the present study was to examine how inhibition of the basolateral amygdala (BLA), an area that projects to the nucleus accumbens-ventral palldium (NA-VP) circuit of the mesolimbic dopamine system, bilaterally with muscimol (a GABA-A agonist) might interrupt the retrieval of pups by post-partum rats. Females injected with muscimol, but not those injected with saline, displayed significant deficits in retrieval behavior, suggesting that the BLA is a region important for the promotion of maternal behavior. The effects were also reversible, as all females displayed normal maternal behavior 24-hours post-injection. Follow-up studies should use asymmetric neuron-specific lesions of the BLA and the VP to show that the projections from the BLA to the VP are essential for maternal behavior. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2010. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: College Honors Program. / Discipline: Psychology Honors Program. / Discipline: Psychology.

Considerando a necessidade da pasteurização da água de coco verde, após a abertura do fruto, devido à ação de microrganismos e das enzimas presentes, peroxidase (POD) e polifenoloxidase (PFD), o presente trabalho tem como objetivo estudar o comportamento da atividade dessas enzimas, através de processo térmico contínuo. Na primeira parte foi estudada a cinética de inativação térmica das enzimas em processo de pasteurização da água de coco, realizado em trocador de calor a placas (TCP) de laboratório, ARMFIELD FT 43–A, a temperatura de 90°C em diferentes tempos de retenção. Amostras da água de coco não processada e processada foram congeladas a – 30ºC para as análises enzimáticas. Na segunda parte, com base nos resultados obtidos de cinética, foram realizados processos a 90 ºC com tempos de retenção de 120, 180 e 200 s para o estudo do comportamento dessas enzimas durante o armazenamento. Análises de pH, acidez, turbidez e atividade enzimática também foram realizadas durante o tempo de armazenamento de amostras da água de coco processada e não processada em temperatura ambiente, refrigerada (10ºC) e congelada (- 20ºC). Cada lote de água de coco foi caracterizado pela densidade, teores de sólidos totais e solúveis, cinzas, pH, acidez e turbidez. Nos processos térmicos contínuos realizados a 90ºC a POD e PFD presentes na água de coco apresentaram pelo menos duas isoenzimas com estabilidades diferentes e a PFD mostrou-se mais termorresistente que a POD. A POD presente na água de coco processada, durante o armazenamento a – 30ºC, apresentou-se mais estável que a PFD. A água de coco processada que apresentou maior estabilidade físico-química e enzimática foi a armazenada congelada. / Considering the need for green coconut water pasteurization after opening the fruit due to microbial and enzymatic (peroxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PFD)) action, the objective of this work is to study the behavior of the activity of these enzymes during continuous thermal processing. The first stage of the work was the study of the enzymes thermal inactivation kinetics during continuous pasteurization of coconut water, performed in a laboratory plate heat exchanger, Armfield 43 – A, at a temperature of 90°C with different holding times. Samples of unprocessed and processed coconut water were frozen at - 30°C for enzymatic analyses. In the second stage, based on the results obtained, processing was performed at 90°C with holding times of 80, 120, 180 and 200 s for studying the behavior of these enzymes during storage. Analyses of the pH, titratable acidity, turbidity and enzymatic activity were conducted during storage in processed and unprocessed samples kept at ambient temperature, refrigerated (10°C) and frozen (- 20°C). Each coconut water batch was characterized by density, total and soluble solids, ashes, pH, titratable acidity and turbidity. For the continuous thermal processes carried out at 90°C both POD and PFD presented at least two isozymes with different thermal stability, and PFD was more thermally resistant than POD. During storage at - 30°C POD in processed coconut water was more stable than PFD. The highest physicochemical and enzymatic stability was achieved for processed coconut water under frozen storage.

Eventos epigenéticos como o imprinting genômico e a inativação do cromossomo X (ICX), já foram amplamente estudados em camundongos. Nesses animais muitos dos processos epigenéticos que levam à ICX já estão profundamente esclarecidos. Em humanos entretanto, o conhecimento sobre a ICX é mais limitado, em particular os eventos iniciais do processo durante o desenvolvimento embrionário. O desenvolvimento e aprimoramento de ensaios que envolvem o sequenciamento em larga escala do transcriptoma (RNA-Seq) de células únicas iniciam uma nova era nos estudos sobre a ICX. São crescentes os dados de RNA-Seq depositados em bancos de dados públicos e em 2013 os trabalhos de Xue e colaboradores e de Yan e colaboradores tornaram disponíveis os resultados de RNA-Seq de células individuais isoladas de embriões humanos a partir do estágio de duas células até a fase de blastocisto. Através de técnicas de bioinformática avaliamos o nível de expressão do gene XIST, intimamente envolvido no processo de ICX, nos diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento. Alinhamos também as leituras geradas por RNA-Seq contra o genoma humano de referência no intuito de se identificar variantes em regiões transcritas e assim verificar a origem do alelo expresso. Com isso, pudemos observar que o gene XIST tem sua expressão iniciada em embriões humanos no estágio de oito células, e que o silenciamento transcricional dos genes do cromossomo X já se iniciou no estágio de blastocisto de forma aleatória mas ainda não se disseminou, i.e. a ICX não está completa. Devido ao fenômeno de ICX, a caracterização de genes \"imprintados\" neste cromossomo é desafiadora. Ainda assim em camundongos foram relatados alguns genes do X que são assim regulados. Mulheres portadoras da síndrome de Turner (45,X) apresentam diferenças fenotípicas dependentes da origem parental do cromossomo X herdado, sugerindo a existência de genes \"imprintados\" no X humano. Em particular os genes MAOA, MAOB e USP9X foram indicados como candidatos a serem regulados por imprinting. Através do sequenciamento de regiões transcritas contendo SNPs em heterozigose foram avaliados o padrão de expressão alelo-específico dos três genes indicados. Nenhum sinal de regulação por imprinting pôde ser detectado nem em placenta nem em cérebro humano, pois a procedência dos alelos expressos era independente da origem parental. Isso não significa que a variabilidade fenotípica em mulheres com Turner não possa ser explicada por imprinting em genes do X. Experimentos de RNA-Seq em diversos tecidos humanos ou a partir de células únicas são uma abordagem conveniente para se elucidar este fenômeno / Epigenetic phenomena as genomic imprinting and X chromosome inactivation (XCI) have been widely studied in mice. While most of the processes and steps involved in XCI in mice are well studied, in humans our knowledge is still very limited, specially during early embryo development. Advances in single-cell whole transcriptome high troughput sequencing techniques (RNA-Seq) bring a new era to the XCI field. Single-cell RNA-Seq results of from 2-cell to the blastocyst stage of human embryos were published by Xue et cols and Yan et cols in 2013. Using bioinformatics techniques we searched for the XIST gene expression level (a gene closely involved in XCI) throughout the human pre-implantation embryo development. We aligned reads generated by RNA-Seq assays to the human reference genome looking for variants in gene transcriptional regions and to identify the origin of the expressed allele. Our results show that XIST expression starts from the 8-cell stage and is stabilized and upregulated at the female blastocyst stage. We also show that the transcriptional silence of X-linked genes started at the blastocyst stage and is independent of parental origin but this does not apply for all genes. We concluded that the completion of the transcriptional silence step is probably established during post-implantation stage. The search for X-linked imprinted genes is challenging due to the XCI phenomenon. Nevertheless, X-imprinted genes were reported in mice. In humans, no X-imprinted genes were found so far, but phenotypic differences reported in Turner\'s syndrome (45,X) women was related to the parental origin of the X chromosome inherited. This suggests the existence of X-linked imprinted genes, in particular MAOA, MAOB and USP9X seemed good candidates. By sequencing transcript regions containing heterozygous SNPs in these genes we could access their expression pattern. Our results show no sign of imprinting regulation of MAOA, MAOB and USP9X, neither in human brain nor in human term placenta. This does not rule out the possibility that the phenotypic differences observed in Turner\'s syndrome women could be the consequence of other unknown X-linked imprinted genes. RNA-Seq of different human female tissues is a powerful approach to finally find the genes involved in such phenotypes

Na inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) um dos dois cromossomos X presentes nas fêmeas de mamíferos placentários é silenciado transcricionalmente. Esse é um mecanismo de compensação de dose que assegura que a quantidade dos produtos gênicos oriundos do cromossomo X esteja em equilíbrio entre machos e fêmeas. A ICX pode ocorrer de modo aleatório, onde cada célula escolhe ao acaso qual será o cromossomo X inativado: cromossomo X paterno ou cromossomo X materno; ou de forma \"imprintada\" (termo adaptado do inglês imprinted), ou seja, dependente da origem parental do cromossomo X. Enquanto nas fêmeas marsupiais a inativação ocorre de forma \"imprintada\", sendo o X paterno inativado em todos os tecidos, nos mamíferos eutérios a ICX nos tecidos somáticos ocorre de modo aleatório. Porém alguns eutérios mantiveram o mecanismo \"imprintado\" de ICX exclusivamente nos tecidos extraembrionários, como ratos e camundongos. Em humanos, o estado controverso da ICX em tecidos extraembrionários foi reavaliado por nosso grupo utilizando uma análise mais ampla e identificou-se um padrão aleatório (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010), demonstrando a importância de se realizar uma análise global para se determinar o perfil de atividade do cromossomo X. Em bovinos o padrão de ICX em placenta não está claro. Ele foi verificado analisando-se a expressão de um único gene, e os autores concluíram que o padrão era \"imprintado\" (Xue et al., 2002). Porém a análise de um único gene pode não representar o estado epigenético de um cromossomo inteiro. Assim o padrão de ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos se mostra uma questão importantíssima para ser esclarecida. No presente trabalho o cromossomo X bovino foi analisado em busca de SNPs (polimorfismos de base única) localizados em regiões codificadoras em genes expressos no tecido extraembrionário, permitindo assim através da análise da expressão alelo-específica determinar o padrão de expressão do cromossomo X. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho mostram um padrão de expressão bialélica, indicando que em populações diferentes de células, diferentes cromossomos X estavam ativos. Portanto a ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos ocorre de modo aleatório, padrão semelhantes àquele encontrado em humanos, e diferente daquele encontrado em ratos e camundongos. Este trabalho mostra a importância de uma análise global da expressão gênica no cromossomo X, permitindo assim traçar um perfil de atividade mais próximo possível da realidade. / In X chromosome inactivation (XCI), one of the two X chromosomes present in female mammals is transcriptionally silenced, resulting in a dosage compensation mechanism. The XCI can occur randomly, so that each cell chooses randomly which one will be the inactivated X chromosome: paternal (pX) or maternal (mX); or dependent on parental origin of X chromosome, ie, imprinted. While in female marsupials the inactivation occurs in an imprinted fashion, with the Xp inactivated in all tissues, both somatic and extra-embryonic, in the mammalian eutherians XCI in the somatic tissues occurs randomly. However some eutherians still retain the imprinted XCI mechanism exclusively in extra-embryonic tissues, such as rats and mice. In humans, the controversy of the XCI in placenta was re-evaluated by our group. Using a broader analysis, a random pattern was identified, in contrast to the previously published works. It demonstrated the importance of conducting a comprehensive analysis to determine the profile of X chromosome (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010). In cattle the pattern of XCI in bovine placenta is unclear. It was verified by analyzing the expression of a single gene, and the authors concluded that the pattern was imprinted (Xue et al., 2002). Because the analysis of a single gene may not represent the epigenetic state of an entire chromosome, the pattern of XCI in cattle extra-embryonic tissues is an important issue to be clarified. In the present study the cattle X chromosome was analyzed searching for SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) located in coding regions of genes expressed in extra-embryonic tissue. So that, by analyzing the allele-specific expression it is possible to determine the X chromosome expression patter. The preset results show a bi-allelic expression pattern. This indicates that in different cells populations, different X chromosomes are active. Thus, the XCI in extra-embryonic tissues of bovines occurs randomly, similar to the human pattern but different to that verified in rats and mice. This work shows the importance of a global analysis of the gene expression in X chromosome, through which it can trace the closest activity profile as possible to reality.

Em fêmeas de mamíferos, um dos cromossomos X é inativado proporcionando compensação de dose entre os produtos gênicos de machos e fêmeas. A inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) ocorre no embrião em desenvolvimento, e se caracteriza pela aquisição de marcas heterocromáticas no cromossomo X inativado (Xi), que são mantidas nas células somáticas ao longo das divisões celulares. O melhor modelo para estudo do início da ICX são as células-tronco embrionárias femininas. Provenientes da massa celular interna de blastocistos, elas representam um embrião em desenvolvimento e possuem os dois X ativos; a diferenciação das células promove a ICX in vitro, o que permite a identificação dos fatores e mecanismos moleculares envolvidos. A derivação de linhagens de célulastronco embrionárias humanas (human embryonic stem cells - hESCs) em 1998 permitiu novas possibilidades de estudo da ICX, pois a maioria dos trabalhos procurou esclarecer o mecanismo da ICX no modelo murino. Tradicionalmente, a manutenção da ICX em humanos tem sido investigada em células somáticas híbridas ou transformadas; porém, sabe-se que estas não representam um contexto celular natural. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivos principais explorar a potencialidade de hESCs no estudo do início da ICX, e ainda investigar a função de três fatores na manutenção da ICX em células humanas imortalizadas: DNMT1 (enzima responsável pela manutenção da metilação do DNA), SMCHD1 (proteína da família de coesinas/condensinas), e XIST (um RNA não-codificador que inicia o processo de heterocromatinização do futuro Xi) foram selecionados para este estudo, uma vez que todos participam da manutenção da ICX em camundongos. Até o momento foram derivadas em nosso laboratório quatro linhagens de hESCs, as primeiras da América Latina. A caracterização das linhagens mostrou que, apesar de se manterem indiferenciadas, as hESCs femininas encontram-se em estágio pós-ICX, pois mesmo indiferenciadas já apresentam um dos X inativado. Nossos dados indicam que, submetidas às atuais condições de cultivo, as hESCs não são bons modelos para o estudo do início da ICX, e é possível que a inativação de um cromossomo X durante o cultivo confira alguma vantagem seletiva às células. A estratégia utilizada no estudo da manutenção da ICX foi o silenciamento dos três genes por interferência de RNA (RNAi). Não foi possível diminuir significativamente a expressão dos genes XIST e SMCHD1. Porém, o silenciamento de DNMT1 foi expressivo, e em resposta foi observada reativação do gene MAOA, localizado no cromossomo X e submetido à inativação. Apesar de nossas análises mostrarem que os efeitos da diminuição de DNMT1 foram restritos ao gene MAOA, estes resultados sugerem a existência de diferentes hierarquias de controle epigenético dos genes submetidos à ICX em células humanas / In female mammals, one of the X chromosomes is inactivated to achieve dosage compensation between males and females. The X chromosome inactivation (XCI) occurs early during embryogenesis and is characterized by the acquisition of heterochromatic features on the inactive X (Xi), which are maintained during all the subsequent cell divisions. Embryonic stem cells are the most suitable cells to study the establishment of XCI. They are obtained from the inner cell mass (ICM) of blastocysts, and can represent a developing female embryo, possessing two active X-chromosomes; when differentiated, these cells recapitulate XCI in vitro, and thus one can identify XCI regulators and factors involved. The derivation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) in 1998 offered new possibilities to study XCI, since most of the mechanistic studies of XCI have so far been investigated in the mouse model system. Traditionally, maintenance of XCI in humans has been addressed in somatic cell hybrids or transformed cells; however, they do not represent a natural cellular context. The main goals of the present work were to verify the potential of hESCs as models of XCI, and also to study the function of three important factors in XCI maintenance in immortalized human cells. DNMT1 (DNA-methyltransferase 1), SMCHD1 (a cohesin/condensin protein family member) and the XIST gene (a non-coding RNA which triggers XCI and promotes X heterochromatin formation on the future Xi) were selected, as they are key factors in XCI maintenance in the mouse. Until now four hESCs lines were derived in our lab. Their characterization showed that, in spite of been undifferentiated, the female hESCs have already undergone XCI. Our data suggest that, under the actual culture conditions, hESCs are not good models to study XCI, and it is also possible that X inactivation confers selective advantage to hESCs. Knockdown by RNA interference was used to study the roles of three genes in XCI maintenance. We could not efficiently knockdown XIST or SMCHD1. However, the DNMT1 silencing was substantial, and led to the reactivation of MAOA, an X-linked gene subjected to XCI. Although the effect of DNMT1 silencing was restricted to MAOA, our data suggest that there are different epigenetic hierarchies to control the expression of the genes subjected to XCI in human cells.

A água de coco, como comercializada atualmente, é esterilizada e adicionada de conservante químico ou antioxidante, o que ocasiona a redução de suas qualidades sensorial e nutricional. Para evitar esses efeitos indesejados tem se estudado o aquecimento da água de coco através da radiação por micro-ondas, o que possibilitaria uma bebida de melhor qualidade sensorial e sem adição de conservante ou com menor quantidade dessa substância. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar a viabilidade da pasteurização da água de coco por micro-ondas, utilizando esporos de B. coagulans como indicador biológico do processo. Esporos de B. coagulans CCGB (LFB-FIOCRUZ) 1433 foram inoculados em amostras de água de coco, obtida diretamente de frutos verdes (Cocos nucífera L.) e previamente acidificada (ácido ascórbico e cítrico), seguida de pasteurização em micro-ondas com frequência de 2450 MHz. Os ensaios, provenientes de um Delineamento Central Composto Rotacional, com 4 variáveis (temperatura, quantidade e composição dos ácidos e potência do aparelho de micro-ondas) foram realizados aleatoriamente, com tempo de processo de até 20 minutos. Os testes foram conduzidos com 3 repetições do ponto central. Também foi realizado o processo em manta de aquecimento a fim de comparar os dois métodos. Os resultados da inativação foram expressos em log número de esporos/mL de água de coco. A temperatura é o fator preponderante para o processo de pasteurização da água de coco através da análise dos resultados obtidos pela DCCR. Também foi possível observar que, nas seguintes condições: a) potência de 120 W; b) 76 mg de ácidos adicionados à bebida e c) composição dos ácidos de 22% ascórbico e 78% cítrico, houve uma separação dos resultados em dois grupos. Um grupo à temperatura de 86 °C, em que, a redução da população de esporos foi menor (entre 0,5 log e 3,7 log número de esporos/mL de água de coco), e outro à temperatura de 92 °C, que apresentou maiores reduções logarítimicas do micro-organismo (entre 3,4 log e 7,0 log número de esporos/mL de água de coco). Realizado o teste ANOVA, ficou comprovado que o aumento predito foi significativo. Houve diferença estatisticamente significativa na comparação entre o aquecimento por micro-ondas e o convencional. Porém, essa diferença não foi considerada uma vez que microbiologicamente pode ser desprezada. Quanto ao tempo de processo, são necessários, em média, 10 a 15 minutos de retenção na temperatura desejada para atingir o maior nível de inativação de esporos nas condições do ponto central (89 °C, 125 W, 75 mg de ácidos adicionados à água de coco e a composição desses ácidos de 75% cítrico e 25% ascórbico). A pasteurização da água de coco por micro-ondas mostrou-se viável, mas outros estudos são necessários para otimizar o processamento. / Coconut water, as currently marketed, is sterilized and added with chemical preservative or antioxidant, which reduces its sensory and nutritional qualities. In order to avoid these undesired effects, the heating of coconut water through microwaves radiation has been studied, which would allow a drink of better sensorial quality and without addition of preservatives or with reduced amount of these substances. The objective of this study was to evaluate the viability of the pasteurization of coconut water by microwave, using spores of B. coagulans as biological indicator of the process. Spores of B. coagulans CCGB (LFB-FIOCRUZ) 1433 were inoculated in samples of coconut water, obtained directly from green fruits (Cocos nucífera L.) and previously acidified (ascorbic and citric acid), followed by pasteurisation using microwaves with frequency of 2450 MHz. The tests, from a Rotational Composite Central Design, with 4 variables (temperature, quantity and composition of the acids and power of the microwave apparatus) were carried out randomly, with a process time of up to 20 minutes. The tests were conducted with 3 replicates of the central point. The conventional heating process was also carried out in order to compare the two methods. Inactivation results were expressed as log of spores /mL of coconut water. Temperature is the preponderant factor for the process of pasteurization of coconut water through the analysis of the DCCR. It was also possible to observe that, under the following conditions: a) power of 120W; b) 76 mg of acids added to the beverage and c) composition of acids of 22% ascorbic and 78% citric acid, the results were separated into two groups: one group at a temperature of 86 °C, where the reduction of the spore population was lower (between 0,5 log and 3,7 log of spores/mL of coconut water), and another one at a temperature of 92 °C, which presented higher logarithmic reductions of the microorganism (between 3,4 log and 7,0 log of spores/mL of coconut water). Once the ANOVA test was performed, it was verified that the predicted increase was significant. There was a difference statistically significant between conventional and microwave heating. However, this difference was not taken into account because microbiologically it could be neglected. As for processing time, an average of 10 to 15 minutes of retention at the desired temperature is required to achieve the highest level of inactivation of spores at the center point conditions (89 °C, 125 W, 75 mg of acids added to the cocnut water and the composition of acids of 75% cítrico e 25% ascórbico). The pasteurisation of coconut water by microwave has proved to be feasible, but other studies are needed to optimize processing.