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Através de Testes de Diluição em Sistema de Tubos Múltiplos determinou-se a Intensidade de Atividade de Inibição Bacteriana (IINIB/bacteriostasia) e a Intensidade de Atividade de Inativação Bacteriana (IINAB/bactericidia) de soluções contendo extratos hidroetanólicos e hídricos (decocto e infuso) de três acessos de Bixa orellana L. (urucum) a saber: Arroio do Meio/RS, Eldorado do Sul/RS e Maringá/PR, sobre inóculos padronizados de Salmonella Enteritidis (ATCC 11076), Escherichia coli (ATCC 11229), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 19433) e Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 19114). Determinou-se, paralelamente, o teor de bixina presente nas sementes. Os extratos hídricos apresentaram baixa atividade de inibição e/ou inativação sobre os inóculos bacterianos, enquanto que a forma de extração hidroetanólica apresentou atividade antibacteriana seletiva e significativamente mais intensa (inibição/inativação) entre as cinco bactérias testadas. Independente da forma de extração, as bactérias Enterococcus faecalis e Listeria monocytogenes foram as mais sensíveis à atividade antibacteriana, enquanto que Escherichia coli apresentou a menor sensibilidade. Houve diferença significativa entre os teores de bixina dos três acessos, e, consequentemente, a atividade antibacteriana determinada mostrou-se diretamente proporcional a estes teores. / Through of Dilution Tests in Multiple Tubes System it was determined the intensity of bacterial inhibition activity (IINIB/bacteriostasy) and the intensity of bacterial inactivation activity (IINAB/bactericidie) from solutions containing hidroetanolic and hydric (decoction and infusion) extracts of tree accesses from Bixa orellana L. (annatto) at know: Arroio do Meio/RS, Eldorado do Sul/RS and Maringá/PR, on standardized inocula of Salmonella Enteritidis (ATCC 11076), Escherichia coli (ATCC 11229), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 19433) and Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 19114). It was determined, in parallel, the content of bixin present in the three different accesses of the seeds. The forms of hydric extraction showed low inhibition and/or inactivation activity of the bacterial inocula, and the hidroetanolic extract form showed selective antibacterial activity and significantly pronounced inhibition/inactivation against the five bacteria tested. Independent of the extraction forms, Enterococcus faecalis and Listeria monocytogenes were the more sensitive agents to the antibacterial activity. Escherichia coli had the lowest sensitivity to all forms of extraction. The bixin contents were significantly different between the accesses and, consequently, the antibacterial activity was directly proportional to this contents.

A pasteurização do leite destinado ao consumo é obrigatória no Brasil e o sistema rápido (75ºC/15 a 20 segundos) é o mais empregado no país. O processo visa eliminar. Os parâmetros de tempo e temperatura empregados no mundo foram definidos após estudos sobre a resistência térmica do Mycobacterium tuberculosis e da Coxiella burnetti, reconhecidos como os microrganismos patogênicos, não formadores de esporos e que eventualmente podem estar presentes no leite cru, que apresentam a maior resistência térmica. Entretanto, não há estudos sobre a resistência térmica do M. bovis que circula nos bovinos no Brasil. Este estudo propôs-se a avaliar a resistência térmica (75ºC) de cinco espoligotipos de M. bovis, isolados de bovinos abatidos no estado de São Paulo, em leite integral experimentalmente contaminado. Leite UHT foi contaminado com M. bovis e, então, submetido a tratamento térmico em banho-maria a 75ºC por 20 segundos. Cada espoligotipo foi testado 3 vezes. As amostras foram retiradas do banho nos tempos 0 (o momento em que o leite atingiu 75ºC), 5, 10, 15 e 20, correspondendo ao tempo, em segundos, de tratamento térmico. O leite contaminado também foi analisado, para quantificação da carga inicial. O controle do processo envolveu o acompanhamento da temperatura do leite (um tubo com termômetro) e análise das enzimas fosfatase alcalina e peroxidase ao final do tratamento; para tal, amostras de leite cru foram tratadas juntamente com as amostras-teste. Para quantificação, foi realizada a diluição decimal seriada seguida da semeadura em duplicata em meio Stonebrink-Leslie (37ºC/45dias). Os resultados mostraram que foi na fase de aquecimento que ocorreu a maior taxa de morte de todos os espoligotipos. Houve diferença de resistência entre os espoligotipos ao processo que simulou a pasteurização rápida e o espoligotipo BR024 foi o mais resistente. Conclui-se que houve diferença da eficácia da pasteurização, de acordo com o espoligotipo testado, mas que os resultados precisam ser investigados mais detalhadamente. / The pasteurization of milk for consumption is mandatory in Brazil and fast system (75 ° C/15 to 20 seconds) is the most used around the country. The process aims to eliminate. The parameters of time and temperature were set in the world after studies on the thermal resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii, recognized as the pathogenic microorganisms, not spore-forming and eventually may be present in raw milk, with the strongest resistance heat. However, no studies on the thermal resistance of M. bovis circulating in cattle in Brazil. This study aimed to evaluate the thermal resistance (75º C) of five espoligotipos M. bovis isolated from cattle slaughtered in the state of Sao Paulo in experimentally infected whole milk. UHT milk was contaminated with M. bovis and then subjected to heat treatment in a water bath at 75 º C for 20 seconds. Each espoligotipo was tested 3 times. Samples were taken from the bath at 0 (the time when the milk reached 75 ° C), 5, 10, 15 and 20, corresponding to time, in seconds, the heat treatment. The contaminated milk was also analyzed to quantify the initial charge. The control process involves monitoring the temperature of the milk (a tube with a thermometer) and analysis of the enzymes alkaline phosphates and peroxidase the end of treatment, for such raw milk samples were treated with the test samples. For quantification, we performed a ten-fold dilution serial followed by seeding in duplicate in the middle Stonebrink-Leslie (37 C/45dias). The results showed that it was warming up that had the highest death rate of all espoligotipos. There were differences in resistance between espoligotipos the process that simulated pasteurization and rapid espoligotipo br024 was the toughest. It was concluded that there was no difference of the effectiveness of pasteurization, according to the espoligotipo tested, but the results need to be investigated further.

Devido ao uso excessivo de antibióticos houve e ainda há um crescimento no número de cepas resistentes aos medicamentos existentes. Por causa desse crescimento de bactérias multirresistentes, o número de pesquisas que procuram alternativas terapêuticas antibacterianas tem aumentado, e dentre elas está a terapia fotodinâmica antimicrobiana ou inativação fotodinâmica (IFD). A inativação fotodinâmica, utilizada no controle biológico de microrganismos, envolve a ação de um fotossensibilizador (FS), ativado por um comprimento de onda específico, no intuito de oxidar substratos biológicos, resultando em efeito citotóxico. A cúrcuma ou curcumina natural, conhecida como açafrão da terra, consiste em mistura de três curcuminóides: curcumina, demetoxicurcumina e bis-demetoxicurcumina. A curcumina apresenta várias propriedades farmacológicas, no entanto, possui solubilidade extremamente baixa em soluções aquosas, que dificulta a sua utilização como agente terapêutico. O presente estudo propôs desenvolver nanopartículas poliméricas de PLGA contendo curcumina natural a fim de melhorar sua solubilidade e estabilidade, e também verificar sua eficácia na inativação fotodinâmica de microrganismos. As nanopartículas PLGA-CURC sintetizadas através da nanoprecipitação resultaram em três sistemas diferentes, com tamanho médio e eficiência de encapsulamento de 172 nm e 70% para PLGA-CURC1, 215 nm e 80% para PLGA-CURC2, e 242 nm e 80% para PLGA-CURC3. Testes de estabilidade mostraram proteção do polímero contra a degradação precoce da curcumina natural. Os ensaios microbiológicos in vitro com a solução de curcumina natural, as PLGA-CURC1 e PLGA-CURC2 foram eficientes na inativação da bactéria Gram-positiva Staphylococcus aureus, e do fungo Candida albicans. Porém, a solução apresentou toxicidade no escuro em altas concentrações, ao contrario das nanopartículas. O sistema PLGA-CURC2 com sua carga superficial modificada, gerou o sistema PLGA-CURC3, que inativou efetivamente a bactéria Gram-negativa Escherichia coli. Assim, concluiu-se que foi possível deixar a curcumina natural solúvel em água através do encapsulamento em nanopartículas de PLGA, certificar a melhora na estabilidade em meio aquoso (estocagem), além de inativar bactérias e fungo. / Due to excessive over use of antibiotics there was and still are growth in the number of bacterial strains resistant to existing drugs. Because of the growth of multiresistant bacteria, the number of searches looking for alternatives antibacterial therapeutic has increased, and among them is the antimicrobial photodynamic therapy or photodynamic inactivation (PDI). The photodynamic inactivation used in biological control of microorganisms, involves the action of a photosensitizer (PS), activated by a specific wavelength in order to oxidize organic substrates, resulting in cytotoxic effect. Turmeric or natural curcumin, consists of a mixture of three curcuminoids: curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bis-demethoxycurcumin. Curcumin has various pharmacological properties, however, has extremely low solubility in aqueous solutions, which makes the use as therapeutic agent harder. The present study aims to develop polymeric PLGA nanoparticles containing natural curcumin in order to improve their solubility and stability, and also verify its efficacy in photodynamic inactivation of microorganisms. The PLGA-CURC nanoparticles was synthesized by nanoprecipitation, resulting in three different systems, with an average size of 172 nm and 70% encapsulation efficiency for PLGA-CURC1, 215 nm and 80% for PLGA-CURC2, and 242 nm and 80 % for PLGA-CURC3. Stability tests showed the polymer protected the natural curcumin against premature degradation. Microbiological tests in vitro with the natural curcumin solution, the PLGA-CURC1 and PLGA-CURC2 were efficient in the inactivation of Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, and fungus Candida albicans. However, the solution presented dark toxicity at high concentrations, unlike the nanoparticles. The PLGA-CURC2 system with a modified surface charge, gave the PLGA-CURC3 system, which effectively inactivated Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. Thus, it was concluded that it was possible to let curcumin water soluble by encapsulation in PLGA nanoparticles, to ensure improved stability in aqueous medium (storage), and to inactivate bacteria and fungus.

Eventos epigenéticos como o imprinting genômico e a inativação do cromossomo X (ICX), já foram amplamente estudados em camundongos. Nesses animais muitos dos processos epigenéticos que levam à ICX já estão profundamente esclarecidos. Em humanos entretanto, o conhecimento sobre a ICX é mais limitado, em particular os eventos iniciais do processo durante o desenvolvimento embrionário. O desenvolvimento e aprimoramento de ensaios que envolvem o sequenciamento em larga escala do transcriptoma (RNA-Seq) de células únicas iniciam uma nova era nos estudos sobre a ICX. São crescentes os dados de RNA-Seq depositados em bancos de dados públicos e em 2013 os trabalhos de Xue e colaboradores e de Yan e colaboradores tornaram disponíveis os resultados de RNA-Seq de células individuais isoladas de embriões humanos a partir do estágio de duas células até a fase de blastocisto. Através de técnicas de bioinformática avaliamos o nível de expressão do gene XIST, intimamente envolvido no processo de ICX, nos diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento. Alinhamos também as leituras geradas por RNA-Seq contra o genoma humano de referência no intuito de se identificar variantes em regiões transcritas e assim verificar a origem do alelo expresso. Com isso, pudemos observar que o gene XIST tem sua expressão iniciada em embriões humanos no estágio de oito células, e que o silenciamento transcricional dos genes do cromossomo X já se iniciou no estágio de blastocisto de forma aleatória mas ainda não se disseminou, i.e. a ICX não está completa. Devido ao fenômeno de ICX, a caracterização de genes \"imprintados\" neste cromossomo é desafiadora. Ainda assim em camundongos foram relatados alguns genes do X que são assim regulados. Mulheres portadoras da síndrome de Turner (45,X) apresentam diferenças fenotípicas dependentes da origem parental do cromossomo X herdado, sugerindo a existência de genes \"imprintados\" no X humano. Em particular os genes MAOA, MAOB e USP9X foram indicados como candidatos a serem regulados por imprinting. Através do sequenciamento de regiões transcritas contendo SNPs em heterozigose foram avaliados o padrão de expressão alelo-específico dos três genes indicados. Nenhum sinal de regulação por imprinting pôde ser detectado nem em placenta nem em cérebro humano, pois a procedência dos alelos expressos era independente da origem parental. Isso não significa que a variabilidade fenotípica em mulheres com Turner não possa ser explicada por imprinting em genes do X. Experimentos de RNA-Seq em diversos tecidos humanos ou a partir de células únicas são uma abordagem conveniente para se elucidar este fenômeno / Epigenetic phenomena as genomic imprinting and X chromosome inactivation (XCI) have been widely studied in mice. While most of the processes and steps involved in XCI in mice are well studied, in humans our knowledge is still very limited, specially during early embryo development. Advances in single-cell whole transcriptome high troughput sequencing techniques (RNA-Seq) bring a new era to the XCI field. Single-cell RNA-Seq results of from 2-cell to the blastocyst stage of human embryos were published by Xue et cols and Yan et cols in 2013. Using bioinformatics techniques we searched for the XIST gene expression level (a gene closely involved in XCI) throughout the human pre-implantation embryo development. We aligned reads generated by RNA-Seq assays to the human reference genome looking for variants in gene transcriptional regions and to identify the origin of the expressed allele. Our results show that XIST expression starts from the 8-cell stage and is stabilized and upregulated at the female blastocyst stage. We also show that the transcriptional silence of X-linked genes started at the blastocyst stage and is independent of parental origin but this does not apply for all genes. We concluded that the completion of the transcriptional silence step is probably established during post-implantation stage. The search for X-linked imprinted genes is challenging due to the XCI phenomenon. Nevertheless, X-imprinted genes were reported in mice. In humans, no X-imprinted genes were found so far, but phenotypic differences reported in Turner\'s syndrome (45,X) women was related to the parental origin of the X chromosome inherited. This suggests the existence of X-linked imprinted genes, in particular MAOA, MAOB and USP9X seemed good candidates. By sequencing transcript regions containing heterozygous SNPs in these genes we could access their expression pattern. Our results show no sign of imprinting regulation of MAOA, MAOB and USP9X, neither in human brain nor in human term placenta. This does not rule out the possibility that the phenotypic differences observed in Turner\'s syndrome women could be the consequence of other unknown X-linked imprinted genes. RNA-Seq of different human female tissues is a powerful approach to finally find the genes involved in such phenotypes

Na inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) um dos dois cromossomos X presentes nas fêmeas de mamíferos placentários é silenciado transcricionalmente. Esse é um mecanismo de compensação de dose que assegura que a quantidade dos produtos gênicos oriundos do cromossomo X esteja em equilíbrio entre machos e fêmeas. A ICX pode ocorrer de modo aleatório, onde cada célula escolhe ao acaso qual será o cromossomo X inativado: cromossomo X paterno ou cromossomo X materno; ou de forma \"imprintada\" (termo adaptado do inglês imprinted), ou seja, dependente da origem parental do cromossomo X. Enquanto nas fêmeas marsupiais a inativação ocorre de forma \"imprintada\", sendo o X paterno inativado em todos os tecidos, nos mamíferos eutérios a ICX nos tecidos somáticos ocorre de modo aleatório. Porém alguns eutérios mantiveram o mecanismo \"imprintado\" de ICX exclusivamente nos tecidos extraembrionários, como ratos e camundongos. Em humanos, o estado controverso da ICX em tecidos extraembrionários foi reavaliado por nosso grupo utilizando uma análise mais ampla e identificou-se um padrão aleatório (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010), demonstrando a importância de se realizar uma análise global para se determinar o perfil de atividade do cromossomo X. Em bovinos o padrão de ICX em placenta não está claro. Ele foi verificado analisando-se a expressão de um único gene, e os autores concluíram que o padrão era \"imprintado\" (Xue et al., 2002). Porém a análise de um único gene pode não representar o estado epigenético de um cromossomo inteiro. Assim o padrão de ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos se mostra uma questão importantíssima para ser esclarecida. No presente trabalho o cromossomo X bovino foi analisado em busca de SNPs (polimorfismos de base única) localizados em regiões codificadoras em genes expressos no tecido extraembrionário, permitindo assim através da análise da expressão alelo-específica determinar o padrão de expressão do cromossomo X. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho mostram um padrão de expressão bialélica, indicando que em populações diferentes de células, diferentes cromossomos X estavam ativos. Portanto a ICX em tecidos extraembrionários bovinos ocorre de modo aleatório, padrão semelhantes àquele encontrado em humanos, e diferente daquele encontrado em ratos e camundongos. Este trabalho mostra a importância de uma análise global da expressão gênica no cromossomo X, permitindo assim traçar um perfil de atividade mais próximo possível da realidade. / In X chromosome inactivation (XCI), one of the two X chromosomes present in female mammals is transcriptionally silenced, resulting in a dosage compensation mechanism. The XCI can occur randomly, so that each cell chooses randomly which one will be the inactivated X chromosome: paternal (pX) or maternal (mX); or dependent on parental origin of X chromosome, ie, imprinted. While in female marsupials the inactivation occurs in an imprinted fashion, with the Xp inactivated in all tissues, both somatic and extra-embryonic, in the mammalian eutherians XCI in the somatic tissues occurs randomly. However some eutherians still retain the imprinted XCI mechanism exclusively in extra-embryonic tissues, such as rats and mice. In humans, the controversy of the XCI in placenta was re-evaluated by our group. Using a broader analysis, a random pattern was identified, in contrast to the previously published works. It demonstrated the importance of conducting a comprehensive analysis to determine the profile of X chromosome (Moreira de Mello et al., 2010). In cattle the pattern of XCI in bovine placenta is unclear. It was verified by analyzing the expression of a single gene, and the authors concluded that the pattern was imprinted (Xue et al., 2002). Because the analysis of a single gene may not represent the epigenetic state of an entire chromosome, the pattern of XCI in cattle extra-embryonic tissues is an important issue to be clarified. In the present study the cattle X chromosome was analyzed searching for SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) located in coding regions of genes expressed in extra-embryonic tissue. So that, by analyzing the allele-specific expression it is possible to determine the X chromosome expression patter. The preset results show a bi-allelic expression pattern. This indicates that in different cells populations, different X chromosomes are active. Thus, the XCI in extra-embryonic tissues of bovines occurs randomly, similar to the human pattern but different to that verified in rats and mice. This work shows the importance of a global analysis of the gene expression in X chromosome, through which it can trace the closest activity profile as possible to reality.

Essa pesquisa investigou e interpretou aspectos relevantes da desinfecção por radiação ultravioleta (UV) na inativação de microrganismos indicadores. O efluente sanitário foi proveniente de tratamento anaeróbio (Reator UASB), seguido de Biofiltro Aerado Submerso, em escala real. A pesquisa foi dividida em duas etapas, sendo que na primeira foi dado destaque ao estudo das características operacionais da unidade ultravioleta. Na segunda etapa da pesquisa objetivou-se o estudo da resistência de diferentes microrganismos indicadores à radiação ultravioleta e das possíveis correlações entre as variáveis testadas. Os resultados obtidos na primeira etapa da pesquisa forneceram indicativos de que a limpeza das lâmpadas emersas pode ser feita em períodos superiores a 2 meses, devendo-se levar em consideração também a fragilidade do sistema. A limpeza do canal de desinfecção não teve relação com a eficiência de desinfecção. A operação de unidades UV é relativamente simples desde que haja treinamento dos operadores e condições ergonômicas favoráveis ao trabalho dos mesmos. O custo operacional situou-se na faixa de 0,006 R$/\'M POT.3\' de esgoto desinfetado e o custo de energia elétrica foi de 0,07 R$/\'M POT.3\' de esgoto desinfetado. As eficiências máximas de desinfecção encontradas na segunda etapa da pesquisa foram de 100% para Colifagos, 99,999% para CF (Coliformes Fecais) e 99,993% para CT (Coliformes Totais), o que demonstra que a ordem decrescente de resistência desses organismos é CT > CF > Colifagos. Os resultados indicaram que houve pouca variação da eficiência de inativação para as três lâminas de esgoto testadas (3 cm, 4 cm e 5 cm) o que sugere que a unidade é capaz de atender aumentos moderados de vazão, confirmando os pressupostos adotados no seu dimensionamento. Os dados obtidos a partir do ensaio hidrodinâmico indicaram que o reator de desinfecção testado comporta-se como um sistema composto de um reator pistonado ideal com presença de curtos circuitos hidráulicos. / This research has investigated and interpreted relevant aspects of disinfection by ultraviolet radiation (UVR) in the inativation of indicator microorganisms\' inactivation. The sanitary effluent was provided by anaerobic treatment (UASB reactor), followed by aerated submerged biofilter (ASB), on a real scale. This research was divided into two stages, whereas in the first stage, operational characteristics of the ultraviolet unit studies were highlighted. The aim of the second stage of the research was the resistance of different indicator microorganisms to ultraviolet radiation study and the possible relation among variables tested. Results obtained in the first stage of the research have provided indication that the cleaning of submerged lamps may be done in periods longer than two months, however the fragility of the system must be considered. Disinfection channel cleaning should not be related to the disinfection efficiency. The operation of UV units is relatively simple, as long as the operators are trained and work under favorable ergonomic conditions. The operational cost was set at 0.006 R$/\'M POT.3\' of disinfected sewer system and the electrical energy cost was set at 0.07 R$/\'M POT.3\'. The maximum efficiency found on the disinfection of the research second stage were 100% for Coliphages, 99.999% for FC and 99.993% for TC, which demonstrates that the resistance decreasing order of these organisms is TC > FC > Coliphages. Results indicated that there was a low inactivation efficiency variation for the three tested sewer samples (3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm), which suggests that the unit is capable of serving moderate increase of flow, confirming adopted predictions in its dimensioning. Information obtained from the hydrodynamic test indicated that the tested disinfection reactor behaves as a compound system of an ideal piston reactor with hydraulic short circuits.

A pasteurização do leite destinado ao consumo é obrigatória no Brasil e o sistema rápido (75ºC/15 a 20 segundos) é o mais empregado no país. O processo visa eliminar. Os parâmetros de tempo e temperatura empregados no mundo foram definidos após estudos sobre a resistência térmica do Mycobacterium tuberculosis e da Coxiella burnetti, reconhecidos como os microrganismos patogênicos, não formadores de esporos e que eventualmente podem estar presentes no leite cru, que apresentam a maior resistência térmica. Entretanto, não há estudos sobre a resistência térmica do M. bovis que circula nos bovinos no Brasil. Este estudo propôs-se a avaliar a resistência térmica (75ºC) de cinco espoligotipos de M. bovis, isolados de bovinos abatidos no estado de São Paulo, em leite integral experimentalmente contaminado. Leite UHT foi contaminado com M. bovis e, então, submetido a tratamento térmico em banho-maria a 75ºC por 20 segundos. Cada espoligotipo foi testado 3 vezes. As amostras foram retiradas do banho nos tempos 0 (o momento em que o leite atingiu 75ºC), 5, 10, 15 e 20, correspondendo ao tempo, em segundos, de tratamento térmico. O leite contaminado também foi analisado, para quantificação da carga inicial. O controle do processo envolveu o acompanhamento da temperatura do leite (um tubo com termômetro) e análise das enzimas fosfatase alcalina e peroxidase ao final do tratamento; para tal, amostras de leite cru foram tratadas juntamente com as amostras-teste. Para quantificação, foi realizada a diluição decimal seriada seguida da semeadura em duplicata em meio Stonebrink-Leslie (37ºC/45dias). Os resultados mostraram que foi na fase de aquecimento que ocorreu a maior taxa de morte de todos os espoligotipos. Houve diferença de resistência entre os espoligotipos ao processo que simulou a pasteurização rápida e o espoligotipo BR024 foi o mais resistente. Conclui-se que houve diferença da eficácia da pasteurização, de acordo com o espoligotipo testado, mas que os resultados precisam ser investigados mais detalhadamente. / The pasteurization of milk for consumption is mandatory in Brazil and fast system (75 ° C/15 to 20 seconds) is the most used around the country. The process aims to eliminate. The parameters of time and temperature were set in the world after studies on the thermal resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii, recognized as the pathogenic microorganisms, not spore-forming and eventually may be present in raw milk, with the strongest resistance heat. However, no studies on the thermal resistance of M. bovis circulating in cattle in Brazil. This study aimed to evaluate the thermal resistance (75º C) of five espoligotipos M. bovis isolated from cattle slaughtered in the state of Sao Paulo in experimentally infected whole milk. UHT milk was contaminated with M. bovis and then subjected to heat treatment in a water bath at 75 º C for 20 seconds. Each espoligotipo was tested 3 times. Samples were taken from the bath at 0 (the time when the milk reached 75 ° C), 5, 10, 15 and 20, corresponding to time, in seconds, the heat treatment. The contaminated milk was also analyzed to quantify the initial charge. The control process involves monitoring the temperature of the milk (a tube with a thermometer) and analysis of the enzymes alkaline phosphates and peroxidase the end of treatment, for such raw milk samples were treated with the test samples. For quantification, we performed a ten-fold dilution serial followed by seeding in duplicate in the middle Stonebrink-Leslie (37 C/45dias). The results showed that it was warming up that had the highest death rate of all espoligotipos. There were differences in resistance between espoligotipos the process that simulated pasteurization and rapid espoligotipo br024 was the toughest. It was concluded that there was no difference of the effectiveness of pasteurization, according to the espoligotipo tested, but the results need to be investigated further.

High-pressure needleless injection (HPNI) is a process where small-diameter, high-velocity burst of liquid, penetrate foods at pressures ≤ 10,000 psi. The potential of HPNI as an enhancing technique for meat was studied. In study 1, HPNI translocated surface E. coli O157 into the interior of beef eye-of-round subprimals with an incidence of 40 (±7), 25 (±8), and 25 (±8)% for meat that had been surface-inoculated with a four-strain cocktail at 0.5, 1, and 2 log10 CFU/cm2, respectively. Run-off water contained 2, 2, and 3 log10 CFU/ml and was used for HPNI of additional subprimals, which resulted in a cross-contamination incidence of 83 (±4), 60 (±15), and 37 (±6) %, respectively. Incidence of translocation and cross-contamination was similar at all sampled levels below the inoculated surface. Study 1 results indicate that surface microflora will be translocated from the surface into the interior of HPNI-treated beef by the injection fluid and by cross-contamination with recycled fluid. In study 2, E. coli was undetected in cooked steaks (63˚C internal) cut from subprimals inoculated with 2 log10 CFU/cm2 and HPNI processed (study 1). Although cooking reduced E. coli counts, determination of complete kill was not possible because the detection limit for bacterial recovery was about 1 log10 CFU/g. Steaks cut from HPNI-processed subprimals took longer (p <0.05) to reach 63˚C with grilling or broiling, compared to control steaks, possibly due to increased moisture in enhanced steaks. In study 3, sensory acceptance of steaks was evaluated by a consumer panel. Appearance, flavor, and overall acceptance were similar among the untreated control, HPNI steaks, blade tenderized steaks (BT steaks), and steaks cut from subprimals that had been needle-injected with 0.35% (wt/vol) sodium tripolyphosphate using needle injection (NI-subprimal steaks) or HPNI (HPNI-subprimal steaks). Texture of BT steaks (6.5±1.9) was more liked than control steaks (5.8±1.8), while texture was similar for all other comparisons. Conversely, Warner-Bratzler shear force was NI-subprimal steaks < control < HPNI steaks = HPNI-subprimal steaks = BT steaks. Lack of correspondence between texture acceptance data and WBSF suggests that sensory scores were influenced by factors other than the force required for mechanical shear.

Genomic imprinting is responsible for monoallelic gene expression that depends on the sex of the parent from which the alleles (one active, one silent) were inherited. X-chromosome inactivation is also a form of monoallelic gene expression. One of the two X chromosomes is transcriptionally silenced in the somatic cells of females, effectively equalising gene dosage with males who have only one X chromosome that is not complemented by a gene poor Y chromosome. X chromosome inactivation is random in eutherian mammals, but imprinted in marsupials, and in the extraembryonic membranes of some placentals. Imprinting and X inactivation have been studied in great detail in placental mammals (particularly humans and mice), and appear to occur also in marsupial mammals. However, both phenomena appear to have evolved specifically in mammals, since there is no evidence of imprinting or X inactivation in non-mammalian vertebrates, which do not show parent of origin effects and possess different sex chromosomes and dosage compensation mechanisms to mammals.¶ In order to understand how imprinting and X inactivation evolved, I have focused on the mammals most distantly related to human and mouse. I compared the sequence, location and expression of genes from major imprinted domains, and genes that regulate genomic imprinting and X-chromosome inactivation in the three extant mammalian groups and other vertebrates. Specifically, I studied the evolution of an autosomal region that is imprinted in humans and mouse, the evolution of the X-linked region thought to control X inactivation, and the evolution of the genes thought to establish and control differential expression of various imprinted loci. This thesis is presented as a collection of research papers that examines each of these topics, and a review and discussion that synthesizes my findings.¶ The first paper reports a study of the imprinted locus responsible for the human Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes (PWS and AS). A search for kangaroo and platypus orthologues of PWS-AS genes identified only the putative AS gene UBE3A, and showed it was in a completely different genomic context to that of humans and mice. The only PWS gene found in marsupials (SNRPN) was located in tandem with its ancient paralogue SNRPB, on a different chromosome to UBE3A. Monotremes apparently have no orthologue of SNRPN. The several intronless genes of the PWS-AS domain also have no orthologues in marsupials or monotremes or non-mammal vertebrates, but all have close paralogues scattered about the genome from which they evidently retrotransposed. UBE3A in marsupials and monotremes, and SNRPN in marsupials were found to be expressed from both alleles, so are not imprinted. Thus, the PWA-AS imprinted domain was assembled from many non-imprinted components relatively recently, demonstrating that the evolution of imprinting has been an ongoing process during mammalian radiation.¶ In the second paper, I examine the evolution of the X-inactivation centre, the key regulatory region responsible for X-chromosome inactivation in humans and mice, which is imprinted in mouse extraembryonic membranes. By sequencing and aligning flanking regions across the three mammal groups and non-mammal vertebrates, I discovered that the region homologous to the X-inactivation centre, though intact in birds and frogs, was disrupted independently in marsupial and monotreme mammals. I showed that the key regulatory RNA of this locus (X-inactive specific transcript or XIST) is absent, explaining why a decade-long search for marsupial XIST was unsuccessful. Thus, XIST is eutherian-specific and is therefore not a basic requirement for X-chromosome inactivation in all mammals.¶ The broader significance of the findings reported in these two papers is explored with respect to other current work regarding the evolution and construction of imprinted loci in mammals in the form of a review. This comparison enabled me to conclude that like the PWS-AS domain and the X-inactivation centre, many domains show unexpected construction from disparate genomic elements that correlate with their acquisition of imprinting.¶ The fourth and last paper examines the evolution of CCCTC-binding Factor (CTCF) and its parologue Brother Of Regulator of Imprinted Sites (BORIS) which contribute to the establishment and interpretation of genomic imprinting at the Insulin-Like Growth Factor 2/H19 locus. In this paper I show that the duplication of CTCF giving rise to BORIS occurred much earlier than previously recognised, and demonstrate that a major change in BORIS expression (restriction to the germline) occurred in concert with the evolution of genomic imprinting. The papers that form the bulk of this thesis show that the evolution of epigenetic traits such as genomic imprinting and X-chromosome inactivation is labile and has apparently responded rapidly to different selective pressures during the independent evolution of the three mammal groups. I have introduced these papers, and discussed them generally in terms of current theories of how and why these forms of monoallelic expression have evolved in mammals.