International studies have shown the reading competence of Indonesian students to be relatively low compared to other countries. Considering the importance of reading comprehension, the current research has two aims. The first is to provide some insight into the identification of students’ difficulty with reading. The second is to investigate the implementation of innovative methods for teaching reading comprehension in the Indonesian educational context. Both studies were conducted in state upper grade primary schools in Urban Sub District BCL in Bandung, Indonesia. Study One profiled students’ reading performance. Five measurement instruments were developed, written in Indonesian language. The construction of mental models was also introduced. Two hundred and sixty five Grade Five students from eight schools were measured for their competence in decoding, prior knowledge, comprehension monitoring, construction of mental models, reading comprehension specifically related to a particular topic, and their general reading comprehension. The students’ reading performance profiles were very varied. They showed the importance of each component for the achievement of reading comprehension. The profiles also showed the ability for each component of reading comprehension to compensate each other’s function to enable the students to perform well in reading comprehension. The best-fit model for the data accounted for 47% of students’ performance in reading comprehension. Study Two compared instructional interventions, and examined the way each method worked in the Indonesian educational context. The three instructional intervention methods were Reciprocal Teaching (RT), Instruction prompting students to develop Mental Models (IMM), and Instruction in Question Answering (IQA). Participants were one hundred and twelve students in the Sixth Grade from three primary schools. There were three groups in each school. Group 1 received RT followed by IMM (RT-IMM), Group 2 received IMM followed by RT (IMM-RT), and Group 3 received IQA. Group 3 was considered as the control group, since IQA is the traditional method widely adopted in Indonesia. Instruction was separated into 2 phases. Each phase consisted of four sessions of 30 minutes each over a two-week period. The implementation of IMM-RT tended to improve general reading comprehension more than other methods (RT-IMM and IQA). Interestingly, individuals who had a low performance in the pre-test for construction of mental models, improved their performance in the construction of mental models following implementation of RT at the first phase. The results support a conclusion that the IMM-RT combination is potentially effective for the enhancement of students’ reading comprehension. However, further results showed that, in order to implement RT and IMM in a common state school classroom in Indonesia, the teacher’s ability to manage and organise the group becomes crucial. Study Three was designed to validate the IMM-RT instructional intervention for improving performances of students with reading comprehension inadequacies, by addressing the limitations found in Study Two. Result showed that IMM-RT had potential for improving students’ performance in reading comprehension. The findings of the current study provide some understanding of reading comprehension in an Indonesian educational context. Moreover, the findings will add to the repertoire of educators about issues that need to be considered in implementing innovative methods for enhancing Indonesian students’ reading comprehension.

Minangkabau is an Austronesian, Indonesian-type language spoken in West Sumatra by approximately seven million speakers. Despite its large number of speakers and the spread of Minangkabau people throughout the Indonesian Archipelago, Minangkabau remains under-described when compared to other Indonesian-type languages like Javanese. This study seeks to improve current understanding about Minangkabau by describing its system of voice alternations and verb morphology. This study presents a novel analysis of the forms and functions of voice marking in Minangkabau, incorporating naturalistic data into the analysis as well as taking the findings of recent typological and theoretical studies of Austronesian languages into consideration. The study makes use of naturalistic, conversational and narrative data from a database maintained by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Field Station in Padang. The study also makes use of elicited data collected in Perth and during fieldwork in Padang. Naturalistic and more formal, elicited Minangkabau data reveals different kinds of linguistic patterns, therefore this study makes a distinction between Colloquial Minangkabau and Standard Minangkabau. The study concludes that Minangkabau has a pragmatically motivated voice system encoded by the alternation between active voice, passive voice and the pasif semu construction. In addition, the study concludes that Minangkabau also has a conceptually motivated voice system that is encoded by a series of semantic and lexical/derivational affixes (ta-, pa-, and ba-) which show how the action originates and develops. The Minangkabau applicatives -an and -i are for the most part valency changing devices but operate within both the pragmatic and conceptual domains of Minangkabau voice. The active voice marker maN- also operates in both pragmatic and conceptual domains whereas the use of the passive voice marker di- is primarily motivated by pragmatic and syntactic factors. This analysis is supported by the finding that di- is a morphosyntactic clitic whereas the conceptual voice markers are affixes and have mainly lexico-semantic properties.

International studies have shown the reading competence of Indonesian students to be relatively low compared to other countries. Considering the importance of reading comprehension, the current research has two aims. The first is to provide some insight into the identification of students’ difficulty with reading. The second is to investigate the implementation of innovative methods for teaching reading comprehension in the Indonesian educational context. Both studies were conducted in state upper grade primary schools in Urban Sub District BCL in Bandung, Indonesia. Study One profiled students’ reading performance. Five measurement instruments were developed, written in Indonesian language. The construction of mental models was also introduced. Two hundred and sixty five Grade Five students from eight schools were measured for their competence in decoding, prior knowledge, comprehension monitoring, construction of mental models, reading comprehension specifically related to a particular topic, and their general reading comprehension. The students’ reading performance profiles were very varied. They showed the importance of each component for the achievement of reading comprehension. The profiles also showed the ability for each component of reading comprehension to compensate each other’s function to enable the students to perform well in reading comprehension. The best-fit model for the data accounted for 47% of students’ performance in reading comprehension. Study Two compared instructional interventions, and examined the way each method worked in the Indonesian educational context. The three instructional intervention methods were Reciprocal Teaching (RT), Instruction prompting students to develop Mental Models (IMM), and Instruction in Question Answering (IQA). Participants were one hundred and twelve students in the Sixth Grade from three primary schools. There were three groups in each school. Group 1 received RT followed by IMM (RT-IMM), Group 2 received IMM followed by RT (IMM-RT), and Group 3 received IQA. Group 3 was considered as the control group, since IQA is the traditional method widely adopted in Indonesia. Instruction was separated into 2 phases. Each phase consisted of four sessions of 30 minutes each over a two-week period. The implementation of IMM-RT tended to improve general reading comprehension more than other methods (RT-IMM and IQA). Interestingly, individuals who had a low performance in the pre-test for construction of mental models, improved their performance in the construction of mental models following implementation of RT at the first phase. The results support a conclusion that the IMM-RT combination is potentially effective for the enhancement of students’ reading comprehension. However, further results showed that, in order to implement RT and IMM in a common state school classroom in Indonesia, the teacher’s ability to manage and organise the group becomes crucial. Study Three was designed to validate the IMM-RT instructional intervention for improving performances of students with reading comprehension inadequacies, by addressing the limitations found in Study Two. Result showed that IMM-RT had potential for improving students’ performance in reading comprehension. The findings of the current study provide some understanding of reading comprehension in an Indonesian educational context. Moreover, the findings will add to the repertoire of educators about issues that need to be considered in implementing innovative methods for enhancing Indonesian students’ reading comprehension.

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Voice assistant technology on smartphones, smart speakers, or those on the wearable devices is one of the fastest-growing artificial intelligence applications in the market now. However, with the potential ethical issues related to the voice technology, it still has not been extensively covered in major markets such as Indonesia. Therefore, this study aims to explore Indonesians’ perception of voice assistant technology, mainly focusing on whether ethical concerns might play a role in their adoption and use of the technology. Firstly, the picture of the discussion about voice assistants and the possibilities of ethical issues is surrounding the technology in the Indonesian landscape by media is presented using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The findings indicate that educational and informative material has a wider resonance compared to ethical concerns and the downsides received from the technology. Secondly, the study also explored the motivations to adopt and use the technology, focusing on whether ethical concerns might play a role in their perception of the technology, attitude, and experience toward voice assistants through semi-structured interviews. The data, then, was analyzed using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). It shows that the users who perceive the voice assistant useful or easy to use still use it to a varying extent. It indicates that TAM variables are not fully explaining the adoption of technology. Adding an ethical framework, we can see that most of the users do not have enough knowledge of the technology they use. It resonates with the portrayal of the subject in media. However, those who are unaware of or neglect the situation to adopt and use the technology still use voice technology influenced by peer pressure, their respect for authority, and other rationalization behavior. Meanwhile, mediation theory explores the influence of the human- technology relationship on the ethical behavior of the users. It also explains that the relation between technology and users is an alterity relationship.

This thesis explores the representation of atrocities committed by the Dutch in Indonesia between 1945-1949 in a Dutch mainstream newspaper in the Netherlands. This timeframe represents the decolonisation war between the Netherlands and Indonesia, which is referred to as the Indonesian National Revolution.  From the theoretical angle, this study was created based on the foundations of Hall’s representation theory and postcolonial theory, both theories were supported by the concept of othering. The combined theoretical framework was created to uncover the representation of the committed atrocities by diving into the employed preferred and dominant meaning of the atrocities, the ‘Self’ and the ‘Other’. The methodological aspect of this thesis consists of a qualitative content analysis, semiotic analysis, which includes Hall’s denotation and connotation toolkit, and discourse analysis. The methodological framework enabled a thorough analysis of the representation and the employed discourses. For the corpus, 159 articles revolving around signs of atrocities and disruptive events within the mainstream newspaper Het Vrije Volk were chosen to thoroughly analyse the representation of the chosen preferred meanings and other discourses. The findings show that Het Vrije Volk predominantly embraced a discourse of colonial pride, which relates to the Netherlands not wanting to let go of its past colony. However, the newspaper did represent a counter-hegemonic articulation by making use of critical discourse as well from time to time. The representation of atrocities committed by the Dutch in Indonesia between 1945-1949 in a Dutch mainstream newspaper in the Netherlands is not black and white and requires a critical lens at all times.

Mangrove ecosystems are found in tropical coastal areas and play vital roles in shoreline protection, habitat support, and medicinal value. These ecosystems are under threat from human activities and climate change. This thesis explored the biodiversity and evolutionary ecology of mangroves in the Indonesian Archipelago, home to the world’s richest composition of mangrove species. Indonesia's geography, including over 17,500 islands and the intersection of Laurasian and Gondwanan flora, makes it an ideal location for studying mangrove evolution. Sea level changes and the presence of land and oceanic barriers have shaped the distribution and evolution of mangroves, with the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) playing an essential role in genetic exchange. The study analyzed 14 populations of Lumnitzera littorea and 21 populations of L. racemosa, utilizing DNA sequencing to assess genetic diversity, structure, and dispersal in relation to geographical distance and sea surface currents. Both species showed low genetic variation, and significant effects of distance and sea current connectivity were observed. Sulawesi acted as a barrier in genetic differentiation, while other barriers were discovered affecting population structure. Divergent evolutionary trajectories were noted between L. littorea and L. racemosa. The study also investigated the relationship between phylogeny and the chemophenetic patterns of their natural products, given their anti-microbial, antioxidant, and other properties. Techniques such as chromatographic separation and high-resolution ESI-MS were used to link molecular phylogeny with phytochemical characterizations. Root samples were collected for chemical analysis, revealing an unusual diversity in sulfated constituents, with some compounds found for the first time in mangroves. Specific geographical areas showed antibacterial potential, and a previously unknown compound, Lumnitzeralactone, was identified. The conclusion highlights this study as the first to reveal molecular evidence of intraspecific phylogroups in Lumnitzera mangroves, with distinctions defined by geographical lines such as Wallace's line. Additionally, the study found promising sources for anti-bacterial agents and potential therapeutic benefits to human health. The observed genetic differentiation emphasizes the need for conservation strategies at the population level, and the potential for new medicines underscores the importance of mangrove conservation in their natural habitats across Indonesia.:Preface 4 Summary 5 Zusammenfassung 10 1. Introduction 15 1.1. Characteristics, significance, and threat of mangroves 15 1.1.1. Characteristics of mangroves 15 1.1.2. Significance of Indonesian mangroves 16 1.1.3. Threats to mangroves 18 1.2. Evolutionary processes and diversity of mangroves 19 1.2.1. Evolution of mangroves 19 1.2.2. Sea surface currents in Indonesia shape genetic structure 20 1.2.3. The relevance of Wallace’s line to mangrove evolution 22 1.2.4. Isolation by geographical distance 24 1.2.5. Genetic diversity and population structure 25 1.3. Diversity of bioactive compounds of mangrove genus Lumnitzera 27 1.3.1. Sulfur-containing metabolites 27 1.3.2. Phylogenetics 28 1.3.3. Anti-infective potential 29 1.4. Study species 30 1.5. Aim of the thesis 33 2. Material and Methods 37 2.1. Sampling and sample design 37 2.2. Laboratory procedures and genetic analysis 38 2.2.1. DNA isolation 38 2.2.2. ddRADseq sequencing, and bioinformatics 38 2.2.3. Genetic diversity, population structure and differentiation 40 2.2.4. Identifying barriers and areas of connectivity 41 2.2.5. Isolation by distance and sea surface current connectivity 42 2.2.6. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), and phylogenetic analyses 43 2.3. Laboratory procedures and phytochemical analysis 44 2.3.1. Root sample extraction 44 2.3.2. TLC, Low-resolution ESI-MS spectra, HPLC, and NMR 45 2.3.3. UHPLC-ESI-QqTOF-MS and MS/MS 46 2.3.4. RP-UHPLC-ESI-LIT-Orbitrap-MS 47 2.3.5. Extraction and isolation of compounds 47 2.3.6. Anti-infective bioassays 51 3. Results 52 3.1. Genetic diversity and population structure 52 3.1.1. Genetic diversity 52 3.1.2. Population structure and genetic differentiation 54 3.1.3. Effective migration 58 3.1.4. Isolation by distance and sea surface current connectivity 59 3.2. Unusual-sulfated constituent and anti-infective properties 61 3.2.1. Phytochemical screening 61 3.2.2. Phylogenetic tree of Lumnitzera 69 3.2.3. Evaluation of anti-infective properties 70 4. Discussion 74 4.1. Population genomics of Lumnitzera mangroves in Indonesia 74 4.1.1. The genetic diversity paradox in mangroves 74 4.1.2. Phylogroups and the Sunda-Wallacea biogeographical pattern 76 4.1.3. Limited mixture among phylogroups and populations by sea surface currents 78 4.1.4. Restricted gene flow by geographical distance 80 4.1.5. Evolutionary ecology of Lumnitzera inferred by genetics and chemodiversity 81 4.2. Bioactive compounds and anti-infective potential of Lumnitzera 82 4.2.1. Diversity of bioactive compounds 82 4.2.2. Sulfated and nonsulfated ellagic acid supported by phylogenetic pattern 83 4.2.3. Anti-infective properties and their restriction to particular locations 86 5. Conclusion and future perspective 89 6. References 94 7. Appendix 111 Curriculum vitae 119 Declaration of independent work 122 Acknowledgments 123 Author contributions statement 125 / Viele Mangrovenarten haben neben Holz- und Nichtholzprodukten auch einen medizinischen Wert und werden traditionell genutzt. Doch durch menschliche Aktivitäten und den Anstieg des Meeresspiegels durch den Klimawandel verschwinden sie rasch. Diese Arbeit erforscht die biologische Vielfalt der Mangroven im indonesischen Archipel, insbesondere die Arten Lumnitzera littorea und Lumnitzera racemosa. Der indonesische Archipel hat die weltweit reichste Mangrovenzusammensetzung und dient als Übergangsregion für verschiedene Pflanzenlinien. Der Meeresspiegelanstieg und dessen mögliche Auswirkungen auf Mangroven wurden genau untersucht. Mangroven besitzen schwimmfähige Fortpflanzungsorgane, und die Meeresströmungen des Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) könnten den genetischen Austausch zwischen verschiedenen Populationen ermöglichen. In der Studie wurden 14 Populationen von L. littorea und 21 von L. racemosa genotypisiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigten eine geringe genetische Variation auf Populationsebene und eine signifikante genetische Differenzierung, beeinflusst von Entfernung und Meeresströmung. Es wurden auch divergierende Entwicklungsverläufe und zwei Phylogruppen bei beiden Arten beobachtet. Die Studie untersuchte auch die phylogenetischen Beziehungen und die Chemophenetik der beiden Arten. Mangrovenböden weisen einen hohen Sulfatgehalt auf, und medizinisch wirksame Verbindungen werden oft von Mikroorganismen wie endophytischen Pilzen produziert. Schwefelverbindungen in Mangroven wurden bisher vernachlässigt. Durch Kombination von phylogenetischen Daten mit chemischen Analysen wurde die Entwicklung der Mangrovenarten und die Vielfalt der Wurzelmetaboliten untersucht. Es wurden chromatographische und tandemmassenspektrometrische Techniken eingesetzt, um eine molekulare Phylogenie mit phytochemischen Charakterisierungen zu verbinden. Die Untersuchung ergab eine ungewöhnliche Vielfalt an sulfatierten Bestandteilen und antibakterielles Potenzial. Zusammenfassend liefert die Studie molekulare Beweise für intraspezifische Phylogruppen in Lumnitzera-Mangroven, definiert durch die biogeografische Trennung von Sunda und Wallacea. Beide Arten stellen eine vielversprechende Quelle für antibakterielle Wirkstoffe dar, einschließlich sulfatierter Ellagsäurederivate. Die populationsgenomischen Ergebnisse liefern Informationen über die Erhaltungsstrategie von Lumnitzera-Arten, und die metabolomischen Ergebnisse berichten über potenzielle neue Arzneimittel, was die Bedeutung der Erhaltung von Mangroven in ihren natürlichen Lebensräumen im gesamten indonesischen Archipel unterstreicht.:Preface 4 Summary 5 Zusammenfassung 10 1. Introduction 15 1.1. Characteristics, significance, and threat of mangroves 15 1.1.1. Characteristics of mangroves 15 1.1.2. Significance of Indonesian mangroves 16 1.1.3. Threats to mangroves 18 1.2. Evolutionary processes and diversity of mangroves 19 1.2.1. Evolution of mangroves 19 1.2.2. Sea surface currents in Indonesia shape genetic structure 20 1.2.3. The relevance of Wallace’s line to mangrove evolution 22 1.2.4. Isolation by geographical distance 24 1.2.5. Genetic diversity and population structure 25 1.3. Diversity of bioactive compounds of mangrove genus Lumnitzera 27 1.3.1. Sulfur-containing metabolites 27 1.3.2. Phylogenetics 28 1.3.3. Anti-infective potential 29 1.4. Study species 30 1.5. Aim of the thesis 33 2. Material and Methods 37 2.1. Sampling and sample design 37 2.2. Laboratory procedures and genetic analysis 38 2.2.1. DNA isolation 38 2.2.2. ddRADseq sequencing, and bioinformatics 38 2.2.3. Genetic diversity, population structure and differentiation 40 2.2.4. Identifying barriers and areas of connectivity 41 2.2.5. Isolation by distance and sea surface current connectivity 42 2.2.6. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), and phylogenetic analyses 43 2.3. Laboratory procedures and phytochemical analysis 44 2.3.1. Root sample extraction 44 2.3.2. TLC, Low-resolution ESI-MS spectra, HPLC, and NMR 45 2.3.3. UHPLC-ESI-QqTOF-MS and MS/MS 46 2.3.4. RP-UHPLC-ESI-LIT-Orbitrap-MS 47 2.3.5. Extraction and isolation of compounds 47 2.3.6. Anti-infective bioassays 51 3. Results 52 3.1. Genetic diversity and population structure 52 3.1.1. Genetic diversity 52 3.1.2. Population structure and genetic differentiation 54 3.1.3. Effective migration 58 3.1.4. Isolation by distance and sea surface current connectivity 59 3.2. Unusual-sulfated constituent and anti-infective properties 61 3.2.1. Phytochemical screening 61 3.2.2. Phylogenetic tree of Lumnitzera 69 3.2.3. Evaluation of anti-infective properties 70 4. Discussion 74 4.1. Population genomics of Lumnitzera mangroves in Indonesia 74 4.1.1. The genetic diversity paradox in mangroves 74 4.1.2. Phylogroups and the Sunda-Wallacea biogeographical pattern 76 4.1.3. Limited mixture among phylogroups and populations by sea surface currents 78 4.1.4. Restricted gene flow by geographical distance 80 4.1.5. Evolutionary ecology of Lumnitzera inferred by genetics and chemodiversity 81 4.2. Bioactive compounds and anti-infective potential of Lumnitzera 82 4.2.1. Diversity of bioactive compounds 82 4.2.2. Sulfated and nonsulfated ellagic acid supported by phylogenetic pattern 83 4.2.3. Anti-infective properties and their restriction to particular locations 86 5. Conclusion and future perspective 89 6. References 94 7. Appendix 111 Curriculum vitae 119 Declaration of independent work 122 Acknowledgments 123 Author contributions statement 125

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