Objective. To compare energy balance and nutrient intake of elite and non-elite school-aged gymnasts, as well as to evaluate their nutritional knowledge and eating attitude and its effect on dietary intake and practices. Methods. Demographic information, anthropometric measurements, menstrual status, sources of nutritional information, nutritional habits as well as supplement use was documented. Eating attitudes were measured by the EAT26 test and nutritional knowledge by a standardised questionnaire. Dietary intake and practices were determined with a 3-day weighed food record, while energy expenditure was measured with an Actical® accelerometer (Mini Mitter Co., Inc. Bend, OR, USA). Results. The total daily energy intake (non-elite = 6 944.37 ± 1 272.28 kJ vs. elite = 6 543.01 ± 2 570 kJ) in both groups was similar to their daily energy expenditure values (non-elite = 6 393.77 ± 1 244.19 kJ vs. elite = 6 696.09 ± 1 676.58 kJ). Elite gymnasts tended to have higher protein (21.37 vs. 15.4% total energy intake (TE), small effect size, d = 0.1) and lower fat (28.9 vs. 33.6% TE, medium effect size, d = - 0.6) intakes. More non-elite gymnasts (n = 7, 88.88%) used micronutrient supplements than elite gymnasts (n = 4, 45.45%, medium effect size, d = 0.45). Most of the gymnasts (55%) ate snacks during the day, which consisted mostly of refined carbohydrates. In the total group of gymnasts the most frequently used source of nutritional information was the coach (60%). There was no difference in nutritional knowledge between the groups (elite = 61.8% vs. non-elite = 62.8% respectively). Lastly, elite gymnasts had a practically significantly higher risk than non-elite gymnasts to follow a diet (large effect size, d = 1.32), while non-elite gymnasts exercised practically significantly more self-control over their food intake com pared to elite gymnasts (large effect size, d = - 1.03). Conclusions. South African elite gymnasts do not differ from non-elite gymnasts in terms of energy-, carbohydrate-, protein-, or fat intake. There is also no difference in energy expenditure or risk in developing an eating disorder, probably due to less competitiveness compared to other international gymnasts. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

Aim and objectives: This study set out to investigate the diet and blood lipid profiles of subjects in transition in the North West Province in South Africa. It looked specifically at how the diet differed between rural and urban areas, how the blood lipid profiles differed between rural and urban subjects, establishing an association between dietary fat, fatty acid and cholesterol intakes respectively and blood lipid profiles, as well as investigating the differences in blood lipid profiles at different ages, body mass index (BMI) and genders respectively in rural and urban areas. Design: The present study was a cross–sectional data analysis nested within the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study that is currently undertaken in the North West Province of South Africa amongst other countries. Methods: Baseline data was obtained in 2005. A randomised paper selection was done of people between 35 - 70 years of age with no reported chronic diseases of lifestyle, TB or HIV of those enrolled into the PURE study if they had provided written consent. Eventually a paper selection was made of 2000 subjects, 500 people in each of the four communities (rural, urban–rural, urban, established urban). For the interpretation purposes of this study, data was stratified for rural (1000 subjects) and urban (1000 subjects) only, with no further sub–division into communities. Physical activity levels and habitual diets were obtained from these subjects. Demographic and dietary intake data in the PURE study was collected using validated, culture sensitive questionnaires. Anthropometric measures and lipid analysis were determined using standardised methodology. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations and proportions) were calculated. One–way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine differences between the different levels of urbanisation on blood lipid profiles and dietary intake. When a dietary intake variable proved to be significant for different levels of a factor (urbanisation, blood lipid profile), post–hoc tests were calculated to determine which levels for specific variables differed significantly. Bonferroni–type adjustments were made for the multiple comparisons. Spearman correlations were calculated to determine associations. Results: Mean fat intake was significantly higher in urban areas than in rural areas (67.16 ± 33.78 g vs. 32.56 ± 17.66 g, p<0.001); and the same was true for the individual fatty acid intakes. Fat and fatty acid intakes were still within recommendations even for urban areas, and low for rural areas. N–3 intake was very low in both rural and urban areas. Serum lipids did not differ significantly between rural and urban areas. Almost half of rural (43%) and urban (47%) subjects presented with elevated total cholesterol (5.0 mmol/L). In rural areas 52% and in urban areas 55% of subjects had elevated LDL–C (3.0 mmol/L). Amongst 23% of males in rural areas and 18% of males in urban areas HDL–C levels were decreased. Of the females living in rural areas 34.3% had decreased HDL–C levels and 39% of those who lived in urban areas presented with lowered HDL–C levels. In rural areas 16.3% of subjects and in urban areas 23% of subjects presented with high triglyceride levels. TC, LDL–C and triglyceride levels were higher in higher body mass index (BMI) classes, however, obese subjects did not differ significantly from overweight subjects in terms of blood lipids, suggesting that values stabilise after reaching overweight status. These blood lipids were also higher in higher age groups and higher in women than men, probably due to the high incidence of obesity in women. Conclusions: Associations between the diet and blood lipid profiles were weak, and diet is not likely to be the only factor responsible for high TC and LDL–C levels. Blood lipid profiles did not differ significantly between rural and urban areas due to the fact that the diet was prudent in terms of fat intake in both rural and urban areas. Higher prevalence of underweight was noted in males (32% in rural areas and 28% in urban areas), while overwieght was a bigger problem amongst women (48% in rural areas and 54% in urban areas). TC, LDL–C and TAG were higher with higher BMI’s, while HDL–C levels were lower. TC, LDL–C, and TAG were higher in higher age goups while HDL–C levels were lower. Female subjects presented with higher mean triglycerides than males, probably due to higher prevalence of overweight and obesity. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Due to the legal obligation to report actual or suspected cases of child sexual abuse and neglect, parents, concerned community members and friends, as well as various professionals like teachers, doctors and psychologists, refer children on a daily basis to social workers in order to initiate an investigation of the allegations. The intake interview is therefore a critical step in the process of child protection and care. In the context of this study, intake interview refers to the initial contact between the social worker and the child in the case of child sexual abuse, where a social worker seeks to establish all objective facts relating to the case so as to make informed decisions and to act accordingly. The Mafikeng Service Point of the Department of Health and Social Development has no standard procedures for social workers in cases of child sexual abuse. It is against this background that a North West based study on the child sexual abuse intake procedures was conducted at Mafikeng Service Point. The study was descriptive and quantitative in nature, with the aim of making a theoretical as well as an empirical study of the intake procedures at the time of the investigation. Data was collected by means of a self–administered questionnaire on the current intake procedures of 30 social workers. Data was triangulated by analysing 15 case files of reported child sexual abuse. It was found that the majority of social workers of the Mafikeng Service Point lack sufficient knowledge and skills regarding interviewing child sexual abuse cases and the legal requirements involved. As a result, they follow diverse and largely inefficient intake interview procedures. The 15 case files that were analysed revealed that social workers do not perform follow–up sessions after the intake and that case files are therefore not officially closed. Recommendations are made to the Mafikeng Service Point with regard to the intake procedures of child sexual abuse cases. / Thesis (M.A. (MW))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Sea water intake structures submerged in the surf zone are used to provide water for cooling processes in large facilities such as power plants and refineries. Structures submerged in the surf zone are subject to large forces from breaking waves. To study these forces induced from realistic sea state conditions, a physical model of an intake structure submerged in the wave breaking zone was constructed and subjected to a wide spectrum of regular and irregular waves. The model structure was designed in a manner so force measurement could be isolated to separate components of the structure. The data of peak forces on the structure was analyzed for correlations with varying irregular wave properties. Using the results of forcing on the structure from regular wave tests, drag and inertia coefficients for use in the Morison equation were determined for each separate component and configuration of the structure. These force coefficients were plotted against various wave properties to analyze correlations with wave conditions. Finally, the force coefficients for the structure were used with the Morison equation and current data from the experiments to successfully model forcing on the structure during irregular wave tests.

Aim and objectives: This study set out to investigate the diet and blood lipid profiles of subjects in transition in the North West Province in South Africa. It looked specifically at how the diet differed between rural and urban areas, how the blood lipid profiles differed between rural and urban subjects, establishing an association between dietary fat, fatty acid and cholesterol intakes respectively and blood lipid profiles, as well as investigating the differences in blood lipid profiles at different ages, body mass index (BMI) and genders respectively in rural and urban areas. Design: The present study was a cross–sectional data analysis nested within the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study that is currently undertaken in the North West Province of South Africa amongst other countries. Methods: Baseline data was obtained in 2005. A randomised paper selection was done of people between 35 - 70 years of age with no reported chronic diseases of lifestyle, TB or HIV of those enrolled into the PURE study if they had provided written consent. Eventually a paper selection was made of 2000 subjects, 500 people in each of the four communities (rural, urban–rural, urban, established urban). For the interpretation purposes of this study, data was stratified for rural (1000 subjects) and urban (1000 subjects) only, with no further sub–division into communities. Physical activity levels and habitual diets were obtained from these subjects. Demographic and dietary intake data in the PURE study was collected using validated, culture sensitive questionnaires. Anthropometric measures and lipid analysis were determined using standardised methodology. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations and proportions) were calculated. One–way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine differences between the different levels of urbanisation on blood lipid profiles and dietary intake. When a dietary intake variable proved to be significant for different levels of a factor (urbanisation, blood lipid profile), post–hoc tests were calculated to determine which levels for specific variables differed significantly. Bonferroni–type adjustments were made for the multiple comparisons. Spearman correlations were calculated to determine associations. Results: Mean fat intake was significantly higher in urban areas than in rural areas (67.16 ± 33.78 g vs. 32.56 ± 17.66 g, p<0.001); and the same was true for the individual fatty acid intakes. Fat and fatty acid intakes were still within recommendations even for urban areas, and low for rural areas. N–3 intake was very low in both rural and urban areas. Serum lipids did not differ significantly between rural and urban areas. Almost half of rural (43%) and urban (47%) subjects presented with elevated total cholesterol (5.0 mmol/L). In rural areas 52% and in urban areas 55% of subjects had elevated LDL–C (3.0 mmol/L). Amongst 23% of males in rural areas and 18% of males in urban areas HDL–C levels were decreased. Of the females living in rural areas 34.3% had decreased HDL–C levels and 39% of those who lived in urban areas presented with lowered HDL–C levels. In rural areas 16.3% of subjects and in urban areas 23% of subjects presented with high triglyceride levels. TC, LDL–C and triglyceride levels were higher in higher body mass index (BMI) classes, however, obese subjects did not differ significantly from overweight subjects in terms of blood lipids, suggesting that values stabilise after reaching overweight status. These blood lipids were also higher in higher age groups and higher in women than men, probably due to the high incidence of obesity in women. Conclusions: Associations between the diet and blood lipid profiles were weak, and diet is not likely to be the only factor responsible for high TC and LDL–C levels. Blood lipid profiles did not differ significantly between rural and urban areas due to the fact that the diet was prudent in terms of fat intake in both rural and urban areas. Higher prevalence of underweight was noted in males (32% in rural areas and 28% in urban areas), while overwieght was a bigger problem amongst women (48% in rural areas and 54% in urban areas). TC, LDL–C and TAG were higher with higher BMI’s, while HDL–C levels were lower. TC, LDL–C, and TAG were higher in higher age goups while HDL–C levels were lower. Female subjects presented with higher mean triglycerides than males, probably due to higher prevalence of overweight and obesity. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Due to the legal obligation to report actual or suspected cases of child sexual abuse and neglect, parents, concerned community members and friends, as well as various professionals like teachers, doctors and psychologists, refer children on a daily basis to social workers in order to initiate an investigation of the allegations. The intake interview is therefore a critical step in the process of child protection and care. In the context of this study, intake interview refers to the initial contact between the social worker and the child in the case of child sexual abuse, where a social worker seeks to establish all objective facts relating to the case so as to make informed decisions and to act accordingly. The Mafikeng Service Point of the Department of Health and Social Development has no standard procedures for social workers in cases of child sexual abuse. It is against this background that a North West based study on the child sexual abuse intake procedures was conducted at Mafikeng Service Point. The study was descriptive and quantitative in nature, with the aim of making a theoretical as well as an empirical study of the intake procedures at the time of the investigation. Data was collected by means of a self–administered questionnaire on the current intake procedures of 30 social workers. Data was triangulated by analysing 15 case files of reported child sexual abuse. It was found that the majority of social workers of the Mafikeng Service Point lack sufficient knowledge and skills regarding interviewing child sexual abuse cases and the legal requirements involved. As a result, they follow diverse and largely inefficient intake interview procedures. The 15 case files that were analysed revealed that social workers do not perform follow–up sessions after the intake and that case files are therefore not officially closed. Recommendations are made to the Mafikeng Service Point with regard to the intake procedures of child sexual abuse cases. / Thesis (M.A. (MW))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Abstract Background There is a great need for improved dietary assessment methods that give valid intake data and are more user friendly than traditional methods. Objectives The aim of this thesis was to develop, implement, and evaluate dietary assessment methods using new approaches and technologies in young populations, and to investigate variables that are important for reporting accuracy. Another aim was to investigate day-of-the-week effects on assessed energy and sugar intakes among children and adolescents. Methods This thesis is based on data collected as part of four different studies on the implementation of the following dietary assessment methods: the short dietary questionnaire (SDQ), a food record (FR) with either a digital camera or smartphone, and a computer-based 24-hour recall. Young pregnant and non-pregnant women with different weight statuses completed the SDQ. Children with overweight and obesity used digital cameras to complete FRs, and adolescents used the smartphone application FR. Parents of 2‒9-year-old European children completed the computer-based 24-hour recall and the results of sugar intake of the children on weekdays and weekends were analysed. The SDQ was evaluated against doubly labelled water (DLW) and a more extensive food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The two FRs were evaluated against data from a SenseWear Armband (SWA), and the smartphone FR was further compared to a web-based FR. Results The new approaches and technologies used in the dietary assessment methods in this thesis captured between 70% and 79% of the energy intake (EI) of children, adolescents and young women, and the ranking according to EI was generally low with all methods. The negative effect on reporting accuracy with increasing BMI/weight status that has been observed previously was confirmed in our studies. In children and adolescents, a weekend day in the FR emerged as a factor that was positively associated with reporting accuracy. Assessed sugar intake in children and adolescents was high in general and highest on weekends, although EI did not differ between weekdays and weekends. Conclusions FRs using technology should focus on simplifying the recording of consumed foods and amounts to a greater extent, for example, by automatizing these steps as much as possible. The SDQ could be further adapted for testing among other groups than young women, and could be adapted for specific objectives. Factors influencing reporting accuracy need to be taken into consideration and further explored when assessing dietary intake. In order to make it possible to evaluate sugar intake in relation to nutritional recommendations, information about added sugar in foods needs to be incorporated into food composition databases. Further development and research is needed to obtain dietary assessment methods with improved accuracy and user friendliness. / Sammanfattning Bakgrund Traditionella kostundersökningsmetoder är krävande och har flera felkällor, vilket ofta leder till att energiintaget (EI) från insamlade kostdata är lägre än individens uppmätta totala energiförbrukning (TEE). Det finns ett stort behov av kostundersökningsmetoder som ger valida resultat och är användarvänliga. Syfte Syftet med avhandlingen var att vidareutveckla kostundersökningsmetoder och att im plementera och utvärdera dem bland barn, ungdomar och unga kvinnor. Syftet var också att undersöka faktorer med betydelse för en korrekt rapportering av kostintaget. Vidare var syftet att undersöka skillnader i EI och intag av socker under vardagar och helger bland barn och ungdomar. Metod Avhandlingen baseras på data från fyra olika studier där olika nyutvecklade kostundersökningsmetoder användes. I en studie användes en kort kostenkät (SDQ) på unga gravida och icke-gravida kvinnor med olika viktstatus. Rapporterat EI jämförde s med TEE uppmätt med dubbelmärkt vatten-metoden, och rapporterat intag av näringsämnen och livsmedel jämfördes med en mer omfattande kostenkät (FFQ). I en annan studie samlades kostdata in för 2 ‒ 9-åringar från åtta europeiska länder med hjälp av en datoriserad 24-timmars recall som besvarades av föräldrarna. Barnens socker- och energiintag jämfördes mellan måndag ‒ torsdag, fredag och helg. I en tredje studie genomförde 8 ‒ 12-åringar med övervikt eller fetma en kostregistrering med hjälp av digitalkamera vid upprepade tillfällen. I en fjärde studie utvecklades och anvä ndes en smartphoneapplikation för kostregistrering bland 15-åringar, som också använde en webb-baserad kostregistrering. Rapporterat EI med kostregistreringarna utvärderades i jämförelse med TEE mätt med SenseWear Armband, och EI och sockerintag under vardagar och helger undersöktes. Resultat SDQ underskattade EI med 30 % bland de icke-gravida kvinnorna och en signifikant högre underskattning skedde bland kvinnorna med övervikt eller fetma. SDQ underskattade EI med 21 % bland de gravida kvinnorna. SDQ kunde dock rangordna EI bland kvinnorna med övervikt eller fetma och gav ett högre estimerat intag av flera näringsämnen och de flesta livsmedel jämfört med FFQ bland de icke-gravida kvinnorna. De nyutvecklade kostregistreringsmetoderna underskattade EI bland barn med 24 % och bland ungdomar med 29 %. Digitalkamerametoden visade god reproducerbarhet för de olika mättillfällena bland barn. Smartphoneapplikationen kunde uppskatta ungdomars TEE och pojkars fysiska aktivitetsnivå med en fråga om den dagliga fysiska aktiviteten. Underskattning av EI ökade med BMI och var lägre när en helgdag fanns med i kostregistreringen för både barn och ungdomar. Bland barnen iv underskattades EI mer bland flickor än pojkar och underskattningen ökade med åldern. Det fanns ingen signifikant skillnad i intagsmängd av näringsämnen och livsmedel när de mättes med smartphoneapplikationen jämfört med den webb-baserade kostregistreringen, och flera näringsämnen och livsmedel var signifikant korrelerade mellan de båda metoderna. EI hos barn i Europa skilde sig inte åt mellan vardagar och helger, men det totala intaget av mono- och disackarider och/eller livsmedel med hög andel tillsatt socker eller sackaros var generellt högre på helgerna. Sockerintaget på fredagar var ett mellanting mellan intaget under vardagar och helger hos de europeiska barnen. Konklusion De nyutvecklade kostundersökningsmetoderna fångade i genomsnitt mellan 70 % och 79 % av EI bland barn, ungdomar och unga kvinnor, och förmågan att rangordna EI var generellt låg med metoderna. Liksom i tidigare studier underskattades EI i högre grad hos de med övervikt/fetma eller högre BMI i alla grupperna, och bland barn och ungdomar framkom att validiteten ökade med en helgdag i kostregistreringen som en ny påverkande faktor. Barns och ungdomars sockerintag var generellt högt och som högst under helgen. Det finns ett stort behov av fortsatt forskning för att förbättra kostundersökningsmetoders validitet och användarvänlighet. För kostregistreringsmetoder som använder sig av teknik bör fokus i vidareutvecklingen vara på att göra det enklare för användaren att registrera konsumerade livsmedel och portionsstorlekar, till exempel genom att automatisera dessa steg i så hög grad som möjligt. SDQ kan anpassas och utvärderas även i andra grupper och för olika syften. Faktorer med betydelse för en korrekt rapportering av kost intaget bör tas i beaktande även fortsättningsvis samt undersökas vidare. För att göra det möjligt att utvärdera intaget av socker i jämförelse med näringsrekommendationer bör information om mängden tillsatt socker i livsmedel inkluderas i livsmedelsdatabaser.

„Naudingosios“ ar probiotinės bakterijos ypač išpopuliarėjo per paskutinius dešimtmečius. Kaip manoma, pirmasis mokslininkas pradėjęs tyrimus šioje srityje buvo rusų mokslininkas mikrobiologas E. Mečnikovas. XX a. pradžioje jis teigė, kad rauginto pieno produktai yra naudingi sveikatai dėl savo antagonistinio poveikio patogeninėms bakterijoms storajame žarnyne. Taip pat teigė, kad žmonių ir gyvūnų žarnyno mikroflora padeda kovoti su infekciniais agentais patenkančiais į virškinamąjį traktą. Darbo tikslas – nustatyti natūralaus probiotiko panaudojimo įtaką maisto medžiagų pasisavinimumui didelių, vidutinių ir mažų veislių šunų organizme ir įvertinti jų sveikatingumo būklę. Uždaviniams įgyvendinti buvo atlikti trys moksliniai bandymai, o jų eigoje atitinkamais laikotarpiais  virškinamumo bandymai. Tiriamosios grupės mažų veislių šunys per parą suvartojo 60,3 g sauso visaverčio ėdalo, arba 3,5 proc. mažiau (p<0,001), vidutinių veislių  200,3 g, arba 2,6 proc. mažiau, didelių veislių  530,3 g, arba 2,8 proc. mažiau palyginti su ėdalo suvartojamu kiekiu šunų kontrolinės grupės. Jogurto priedas turėjo įtakos drėgnio kiekiui išmatose: mažų veislių šunų išmatų sudėtyje nustatyta 35,2 proc., arba 1,6 proc. daugiau (p<0,001), vidutinių veislių  26,2 proc., arba 1,4 proc. daugiau (p<0,001), didelių veislių  24,2 proc., arba 1,6 proc. daugiau (p<0,001) sausosios medžiagos palyginti su šunų išmatų konsistencija, kurie natūralaus probiotiko negavo. Mažų veislių šunų organizme maisto... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / “Beneficial” and probiotic bacteria became popular during the last decades. As it thought, the first scientist started these researches in this area was Russian scientist E. Mečnikov. At the beginning of the twentieth century, he stated that sour milk goods are very useful for health for their antagonistic effect to pathogenic bacteria in the large intestine. Also he stated that intestine micro flora of people and animals help to fight with infectious agents which get into the digestive tract. The aim of this study – to set influence of used natural probiotic for nutrient intake in organism of large, medium and small breed dogs, evaluating their state of health. Trying to implement tasks it was made three scientific tests and during them during appropriate periods – digestibility tests. Exploratory group – small breed dogs consumed 60.3 g dry full-rate food or 3.5 percent less (p<0.001) during the day; medium breed – 200.3 g or 2.6 percent; large breed – 530.3 g or 2.8 percent less compared with consumed amount of food of control dog group. Addition of yogurt had influence for humidity amount in excrements of dogs: in the composition of excrements of small breed dogs set 35.2 percent or 1.6 percent more (p<0.001); medium breed – 26.2 percent or 1.4 percent more (p<0.001); large breed – 24.2 percent or 1.6 percent more (p<0.001) dry matters compared with excrements of dogs, which did not get natural probiotic. In the organism of small breed dogs extra probiotic did not... [to full text]

The effect of exercise (EXR) on food intake (FI), subjective appetite and net energy balance was investigated in normal weight (NW), overweight (OW) and obese (OB) boys. Each boy received in random order either a non-caloric sweetened control (CON) or glucose (GLU) drink after either EXR or sedentary activity. Normal weight and OW/OB boys exercised at their ventilation threshold (VeT) in experiment 1 and NW boys exercised at 25% above their VeT in experiment 2. Overweight/OB boys ate significantly more total food than NW boys but not when adjusted for body weight. Food intake was lower after the GLU drink. Although EXR increased average appetite it did not affect FI. However, net energy balance was reduced by EXR in OW/OB boys, but not in NW boys. Thus, while EXR increases subjective appetite, apparent intake compensation occurred only in NW, but not in OW/OB boys, resulting in reduced net energy balance in OW/OB boys.

The effect of exercise (EXR) on food intake (FI), subjective appetite and net energy balance was investigated in normal weight (NW), overweight (OW) and obese (OB) boys. Each boy received in random order either a non-caloric sweetened control (CON) or glucose (GLU) drink after either EXR or sedentary activity. Normal weight and OW/OB boys exercised at their ventilation threshold (VeT) in experiment 1 and NW boys exercised at 25% above their VeT in experiment 2. Overweight/OB boys ate significantly more total food than NW boys but not when adjusted for body weight. Food intake was lower after the GLU drink. Although EXR increased average appetite it did not affect FI. However, net energy balance was reduced by EXR in OW/OB boys, but not in NW boys. Thus, while EXR increases subjective appetite, apparent intake compensation occurred only in NW, but not in OW/OB boys, resulting in reduced net energy balance in OW/OB boys.