Universities worldwide are developing a disturbing imbalance with their environments. In recent years, academic working conditions in South African universities have changed dramatically as a result of the country's post-apartheid policies and the accelerating globalisation of knowledge. Academic staff are continually confronted with an overload of job demands without corresponding increases in job resources. These prolonged job stressors that academic staff are subjected to over lengthy periods of time coupled with inadequate job resources can lead to the development of a pathogenically defined construct, namely burnout. The objective of this research was to investigate the relationships between burnout, strain, job characteristics and dispositional optimism in universities in the North-West Province. A cross-sectional design was used. The study population (N = 279) consisted of academic staff of universities in the North-West Province. The Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS), The Life Orientation Test - Revised (LOT-R), Job Characteristics Scale (JCS) and General Health Questionnaire (GHQI9) were used as measuring instruments. Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, standard deviations and kurtosis) were used to analyse the data. Exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modelling were used to confirm the structure of the measuring instruments and to test theoretical models. The results showed that the stressors of overload was associated with high levels of exhaustion and low professional efficacy. Job resources (i.e. social support, task characteristics) were related to low levels of exhaustion and cynicism and higher levels of professional efficacy. Exhaustion and low professional efficacy were significantly related to physical and psychological health problems. Exhaustion and cynicism were negatively related to optimism, whereas professional efficacy were positively related to the latter. Optimism moderated the effects of a lack of resources on exhaustion and the effects of job resources on professional efficacy. / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Call centre employees in the insurance industry constantly interacts and negotiates with strangers, and are confronted with the unknown, unfamiliar and the unpredictable. They use interactive display terminals during telephone calls and thus perform multiple-tasks with frequent interruptions. Their jobs are also characterised by repetitive movements, while complex information is processed. In addition, call centre employees often work in noisy environments under time pressure, and their performance is usually monitored on line. Job demands and job resources can influence the well-being of call centre employees. Emotional intelligence is deemed to aid in the conceptualisation of psychological well-being and can be applied as a means to successfully cope with daily demands and pressures. The objective of this research was to determine the relationship between job demands, job resources, emotional intelligence (EQ) and work-related well-being of call centre employees. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The study population (n = 141) consisted of call centre employees in a corporate insurance environment in Gauteng. The Bar-On EQ-i, Maslach Burnout Inventory-General survey, UWES, Job characteristics scale and a biographical questionnaire were used as measuring instruments. Cronbach alpha coefficients, inter-item correlation coefficients, factor analysis, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients and structural equation modelling were used to analyse the data. Principal component analysis resulted in a fifteen factor model of emotional intelligence namely emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, self-regard, self-actualisation, independence, empathy, interpersonal relationship, social responsibility, problem-solving, reality testing, flexibility, stress tolerance, impulse control, happiness and optimism. Regarding the Job Characteristics Scale, eight factors were extracted, namely role clarity, supervision, pay and benefits, workload, job security, colleague support, opportunity to grow and social contact between the call centre agents. For the MBI-GS two factors were extracted namely: exhaustion and cynicism and for the UWES one factor was extracted, namely vigour/dedication. The correlation coefficients indicated that exhaustion was statistically a significant positive correlation (practically significant, large effect) with cynicism and a statistically significant positive correlation (practical1y significant, medium effect) with workload. Exhaustion was also a statistically significant negative correlation (practical1y significant, large effect) with engagement and a statistically significant negative correlation (practically significant, medium effect) with role clarity, col1eague support, self-regard, self-actualisation, flexibility, stress tolerance, impulse control, and happiness. Cynicism showed a statistically significant negative correlation (practical significant, large effect) with engagement and a statistically significant negative correlation (practical significant, medium effect) with role clarity, supervision, opportunity to grow, engagement, emotional self-awareness, self-regard, self actualisation, flexibility, and happiness. The results indicated that EQ directly influences the experience of burnout (main effect), however, no results could be obtained supporting the moderating effect of EQ between emotional demands and burnout. Recommendations were made for cal1 centre management in the insurance industry and for future research purposes. / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

A growing economy demands a skilled workforce, and the reality of the situation in South Africa is that, due to former apartheid policies and job reservation, there are large numbers of unemployed people with little hope of employment in the formal sector because they lack skills and experience. The National Skills Development and the Skills Development Levy Act gave rise to the development of the National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS). The NSDS is now entering its second five-year cycle with the scoreboard reflecting both gains and challenges for Sector Education Training Authorities (SETAs) as the primary delivery institutions of the NSDS. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between job demands and job resources and the work wellness of employees in SETAs, using a cross-sectional survey design. The survey consisted of 159 SETA employees in South Africa. The Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey, the Utrecht Work engagement Scale, the ASSET (An Organizational Stress Screening Evaluation Tool) and the Orientation to Life Questionnaire, were administered. Descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analyses, Pearson correlations and structural equation modelling were used to analyse the data. The results of this study confirmed the construct validity and reliability of the scales which were employed to measure work-related well-being. Furthermore, the results showed that overload predict exhaustion. Cynicism was best predicted by a lack of resources (specifically growth opportunities and lack of organisational support) and a weak sense of coherence. Vigour and dedication were predicted by growth opportunities, organisational support and a strong sense of coherence Exhaustion predicted physical ill-health, while both exhaustion and cynicism contributed to psychological ill-health. Affective organisational commitment was predicted by vigour and dedication, while behavioural organisational commitment was predicted by high vigour and low exhaustion. Recommendations for SETAs and future research were made / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Stress and burnout among workers are reaching epidemic proportions, resulting in loss of millions in revenue due to absenteeism and corresponding reduction in productivity. The question as to whether the participants of this study experience low levels of work wellness (i.e., low burnout and high work engagement) or not, is not easy to answer. Therefore, research is needed regarding the understanding of how burnout manifests itself, as well as underlying factors contributing to the work engagement of managers and their relationship with job demands and resources thereof. The objective of this study was to investigate which job demands and job resources will predict burnout and work engagement of managers in the packaging manufacturing sector and how different job characteristics will affect their levels of engagement. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The study population (N = 90) consisted of managerial staff from various divisions of a national packaging manufacturing company in South Africa. The Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, the Job-Demands-Resources Questionnaire and a biographical questionnaire were administered. The reliability of the measuring instruments was assessed with the use of Cronbach alpha coefficients. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. Pearson correlations and multiple regression analyses were used to assess the relationships between burnout, job demands, job resources and work engagement. The results showed that exhaustion was positively related to job demands (work overload). Both exhaustion and cynicism were negatively related to a lack of job resources such as organisational support and growth opportunities. Managers with low opportunities to learn, little work independence, poor relationship with colleagues, poor relationship with immediate supervisor, limited access to information, poor communication, insufficient participation, lack of contact possibilities, poor remuneration and limited career possibilities were found to experience high burnout and less work engagement, presumably because stimuli from the environment did not promote growth, self-development, personal accomplishment and meaning for the manager. The results showed that both job demands and job resources contributed to burnout and work engagement. Recommendations for future research have been made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Stress among correctional officers is widespread, according to research studies and anecdotal evidence. The threat of inmate violence against correctional officers, actual violence committed by inmates, inmate demands and manipulation and problems with co-workers are conditions that officers have reported in recent years that can cause stress. These factors, combined with understaffing, extensive overtime, rotating shift work, low pay, poor public image, and other sources of stress, can impair officers' health, cause them to bum out or retire prematurely, and impair their family life. Despite these weaknesses and malfunctioning in correctional settings, many officers are still committed in their work, until they reach their set pension dates. Such officers show intense focus and high levels of enthusiasm. With the upcoming positive paradigm in Occupational Health Psychology, "positive" trends such as work engagement, organisational commitment and individual commitment are also common among correctional officers. The first step in the enhancement of total spectrum of work-related well-being, from unwell-being (burnout) to well-being (work engagement) is the successful diagnosis of stress, burnout and work engagement. However, it is important to use reliable and valid instruments to measure these constructs. The objective of this study in the Department of Correctional Services was to standardise an Organisational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET), an adapted version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI - GS) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) for correctional officers in South Africa, in order to determine their levels of occupational stress, burnout, work engagement, organisational commitment and ill health (based on their biographical characteristics), and to test a structural model of work wellness. A cross-sectional survey design was used, with stratified random samples (N = 897) taken of correctional officers in the 48 prisons in South Africa. An Organisational Stress Screening Tool, the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, the Job - Demands Resources Questionnaire, the Health and Organisational Commitment subscales of the ASSET, and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Cronbach alpha coefficients, exploratory factor analyses, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), T-tests and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the data. Structural equation modelling was used to test a structural model of work related well-being. Significant differences in stress levels based on biographical characteristics revealed a statistically significant difference regarding how correctional officers of different age groups experience stress as a result of job overload and commitment from the organisation towards its own employees. A practically significant difference between correctional officers aged 20- 30 and 50-60 years of age, concerning the experience of stress as a result of job control, was also found. Another statistically significant difference was found concerning how correctional officers with different years of experience in the current job experienced stress as a result of job overload and work relationships. Work relationships contributed to a statistically significant difference between correctional officers with different years of experience in the current prison. Statistically significant differences also existed with regard to the experience of stress between correctional officers with different ranks as a result of job overload and work/life balance. Lastly, no statistically significant gender differences were found among male and female correctional officers in South Africa. This finding on gender, is in contrast with most of the empirical research on gender differences, which suggests that women appear to experience higher levels of stress in comparison to males. Exploratory factor analyses with target rotations resulted in a three-factor model of burnout consisting of Exhaustion, Cynicism and Professional Efficacy. The scales showed acceptable internal consistencies and construct equivalence for two language groups (Afrikaans/English and African). Regarding the differences in the burnout levels between language groups, a significant effect of language on the combined dependent variable Burnout was revealed. Analysis of each individual dependent variable showed that there were no significant differences between the levels of Exhaustion and Cynicism in the two language groups. The two groups differed in terms of the level of Professional Efficacy, where the English/Afrikaans group showed higher levels of Professional Efficacy. No significant effect of qualification and rank on the combined dependent variable Burnout was found. However, the language groups (English/Afrikaans) and (Africans) differed in terms of the level of Exhaustion where the Africans showed higher levels of Exhaustion. Furthermore, there was a significant effect of job on the combined dependent variable Burnout. Significant differences existed between language groups as a result of the levels of Exhaustion, Cynicism and Professional Efficacy. Finally, compared to the normative sample, 32,4% of correctional officers experience high levels of Exhaustion, while 38,6% experience high Cynicism and 32,1% show low Professional Efficacy. Exploratory factor analyses with target rotations resulted in a one-factor model of work engagement, consisting of Vigour/Dedication. The scales showed acceptable construct and internal equivalence for two language groups (Afrikaans and English). Although no practically significant differences between language groups of correctional officers in South Africa were found, it did reveal statistically significant higher levels of work engagement for Africans as compared to the Afrikaans/English language group. Furthermore, regarding differences in engagement levels based on qualifications and ranks, the findings revealed a statistically significant difference based on qualifications, and not on rank. No significant gender differences were found. With regard to aspects that enervated work-related well-being, the model showed that job demands (overload) and lack of job resources had an impact on burnout. Burnout, furthermore, mediated the relationship between job demands and ill health among correctional officers. The structural model revealed that work-related well-being mediated the relationship between job resources and organisational commitment. Correctional officers were likely to be victims of burnout and consequently ill health when an increase in job demands is not matched with an increase in job resources. The availability of job resources lead to work-related wellbeing, which will turn into organisational commitment. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

The mining industry plays an important role in the economy of South Africa. This industry is an employer of thousands of people and the development of South Africa has depended on the development of the mining industry in more than one way. However, working conditions in the mining industry is poor, harsh and dangerous and employees are also faced with job insecurity. This may lead to stressors in the working environment and these stressors, which are closely related to work characteristics, may have negative effects on employees as well as on their productivity levels. Studies relating organisational resources to work-related flow have provided additional evidence for the motivational potential of resources. The focus of this study is on job characteristics, consisting of job demands and job resources and whether these characteristics can foster work-related flow. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between job demands, job resources and work-related flow and to determine whether the availability of job resources and the lack of job demands foster the experience of work-related flow. The research method consisted of a literature review and an empirical study. A cross-sectional survey design was used o collect the data. An availability sample (N = 326) from employees in the mining industry was taken. The Job Demands and Resources Scale (JDRS) (which was developed for the purpose of this study to measure job demands and job resources for employees in the mining industry) and the Work-Related Flow scale (WOLF) and a biographical questionnaire were also administered The statistical analysis was carried out with the help of the SPSS programme and AMOS programme. The statistical methods utilised in the article consisted of descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients , Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients and structural equation modelling methods. Pearson product moment correlation in this study showed that Supervision correlated positively with Task Freedom, Support, Pay and Benefits, Opportunities for Growth and Resources Availability. Workload correlated positively with Working Conditions. Working Conditions correlated positively with Working Hours and negatively with Resources Availability. Task Freedom correlated positively with Opportunities for Growth and Intrinsic Motivation, and Support correlated positively with Opportunity for Growth Pay and Benefits correlated positively with Opportunity for Growth and Resource Availability, whereas Opportunity for Growth correlated positively to Work Enjoyment. Resources Availability correlates negatively with Working Hours, and Absorption indicates a positive correlation to Work Enjoyment and Intrinsic Motivation. Work Enjoyment correlates positively to intrinsic Motivation A structural model of work-related flow for employees in the mining industry comprising of job demands, job resources and work-related flow was tested. Job Resources (i.e. Supervision, Task Freedom, Support, Pay and Benefits, Opportunity for Growth, and Resource Availability) may have a positive impact on Work-Related Flow and could increase the levels of work-related flow of employees in the mining industry. Job Demands (i.e. Workload, Working conditions, Job Security, and Working Hours) has a negative impact on Work-Related Flow, thus job demands may negatively influence the experience of work-related flow in employees in the mining industry. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Within the health care sector in South Africa, the nursing profession is known as one of the four most stressful work environments, which is characterised by high workload, staff shortages and overcrowding situations. This stressful and emotionally draining environment can be the cause for large numbers of nurses experiencing symptoms of burnout and negative work-home interference. However, there seems to be a lack of research investigating specific job demands and job resources associated with burnout and negative work-home interaction in a nursing environment. The first objective of this study was to determine the construct validity and reliability of the adapted Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS). The second objective was to determine which job characteristics within the nursing environment predict burnout and negative work-home interference (WHI). The last objective was to determine whether negative WHI mediated between the most prominent job characteristics and burnout within the nursing environment and whether it was a partial or full mediating effect. A cross-sectional survey design was used. Random samples (n = 300) were taken from nurses working in the Johannesburg, Klerksdorp, Krugersdorp, Pretoria and Potchefstroom areas. A job characteristics questionnaire, the 'Survey Work-Home Interaction - Nijmegen' (SWING) and an adapted version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey were administered. Cronbach alpha coefficients, exploratory factor analysis, Pearson product moment correlations, multiple regression analysis and structural equation modelling were used to analyse the data. Regarding the first objective, it was found that burnout consists of exhaustion and mental distance, whereas cynicism and depersonalisation collapse into one dimension (e.g. mental distance). Regarding the second objective, the results indicated that the most prominent job demands and job resources associated with exhaustion are pressure, autonomy, role clarity, colleague support and financial support. It seemed that mental distance is primarily predicted by role clarity, colleague support and financial support, while negative work-home interference is predicted by pressure, time demands, role clarity and colleague support. Results obtained for the last objective provided evidence for a partial mediating role of negative WHI in the relationship between the most prominent job characteristics (pressure, role clarity and colleague support) and burnout (consisting of exhaustion and mental distance). Recommendations were made for the organisation and for future research. / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

The environment in which hospital pharmacists currently function demands more of them than did any previous period. Employees in pharmacy companies have to cope with the demands that arise from fulfilling various roles, as well as with increased pressures such as managed health care and primary health care. Tracking and addressing their effectiveness in coping with new demands and stimulating their growth in areas that could possibly impact on the standard of pharmacy services are therefore of great importance. The first step in the enhancement of the work-related well-being of hospital pharmacists is the successful diagnosis of occupational stress, burnout and work engagement. However, in order to measure these constructs, it is important to use reliable and valid instruments, and at the same time take biographical differences into account. The objectives of this study were to validate the Maslach Burnout Inventory - Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and the Pharmacist Stress Inventory (PSI) for hospital pharmacists in South Africa, to assess the effect of biographical factors on the levels of burnout, engagement and occupational stress, and to investigate the role of job stress and coping strategies in the work-related well-being (burnout and work engagement) of hospital pharmacists in South Africa. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The study population consisted of an accidental sample (N = 187) of South African hospital pharmacists in both public and private hospital facilities on a national basis. The MBI-HSS, UWES, PSI, the Coping Orientation for Problem Experienced (COPE) as well as a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive statistics, Cronbach alpha coefficients, confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), t-tests and multiple regression analysis were used to analyse the data Confirmatory factor analysis by means of structural equation modelling of the MBI-HSS, confirmed a three-factor model of burnout, consisting of Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalisation and Personal Accomplishment. The scales showed acceptable reliabilities. The results indicated that 35% of the hospital pharmacists showed high levels of emotional exhaustion, while 25% showed high levels of depersonalisation. Biographical factors such as age, years in pharmacy practice, home language, average number of hours worked per week, as well as the level of job satisfaction were related to the burnout levels of hospital pharmacists. Exploratory factor analysis of the UWES resulted in two factors, namely Vigour/dedication and Absorption. These factors showed acceptable Cronbach alpha coefficients. In the same sample (but in a different analysis where the two factors were used separately), it was indicated that compared to a South African norm, 38,5% and 48,9% of the hospital pharmacists showed low levels of vigour and dedication respectively. Position, home language, and the educational level were related to work engagement of hospital pharmacists. The PSI was developed as a measuring instrument for the purposes of this study. Three internally consistent factors, namely Job Demands, Pharmacy-Specific Stressors and Lack of Resources were extracted. The level of severity of the various stressors was calculated and the unavailability of medicine proved to be the most severe stressor. Other severe stressors included frequent interruptions, co-workers not doing their jobs, workload and insufficient salaries. Finally it was investigated whether job stress and coping strategies could predict the work related well-being of hospital pharmacists in South Africa. The results showed that job stress (as a result of job demands and lack of job resources), as well as three coping strategies (approach coping, avoidance coping and turning to religion) predicted burnout and work engagement of South African hospital pharmacists. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

The manufacturing industry today is seen as a demanding world of work where employees are constantly exposed to high demands. This may have an influence on their work engagement levels and their organisational commitment. It seems that in these industries, employee turnover and absenteeism levels are high, while employees also seem to be demotivated in their work. The objective of this study was to investigate the levels of work engagement among employees in a manufacturing organisation and to assess which job demands and resources would predict work engagement. A random sample of 83 employees in a manufacturing organisation was taken. The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWJ3S) and Job Demands- Resources Scale (IDRS) were used as measuring instruments. Descriptive statistics were used to explore the data Cronbach alpha coefficients were used to assess the internal consistency / reliability of the measuring instruments. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to specify the relationships between the variables. A multiple regression analysis was used to determine the effects of job demands and job resources on work engagement. The results of the Pearson Correlations showed that two job resources, namely organisational support (i.e. relationship with supervisor, role clarity, information, communication, and participation) and growth opportunities (i.e. variety in the job, opportunities to learn, and autonomy) were strongly related to the levels of work engagement. Social support (from colleagues) and advancement (i.e. remuneration, training and advawement opportunities) were moderately related to work engagement. The results of the regression analyses further indicated that an increase in two job resources, organisational support and growth opportunities, will probably increase the overall work engagement level of employee in a manufacturing organisation. The results also indicated that job demands (i.e. pace of work, quantitative workload, and emotional load) had a weak relationship with work engagement. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

The technological era in which modern day organisations function, attempting to make every aspect of service more efficient and customer friendly, has cultivated a need within organisations to invent new ways of service. Call centres are one way in which organisations are trying to improve their customer service. For this reason, telephone call centres are one of the fastest growing segments of the service sector. The growth in call centres is attributable to the benefits that they offer organisations. Call centres can improve service and retain customers, increase sales and/or revenue and reduce costs and/or improve efficiency. For this reason, organisations are placing an increasing emphasis on the role of call centres regarding the competitiveness of the company and increased pressure on call centre agents. Research indicated that there are certain stressors in the call centre industry. This is emphasised by the high turnover rate and by high absenteeism levels in call centres. Although some studies seem to suggest that working in call centres can be interesting, overall it seems that working in call centres is a stressful experience. The objective of this research was to investigate the relationship between job characteristics, work wellness and work-related flow of call centre agents in an insurance company. A cross-sectional design was used with an availability sample (N = 176). A self-constructed instrument (JDRS) was used to measure the unique job demands and job resources in the insurance industry. Along with the JDRS, the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale and the Work-Related Flow Scale were used as measuring instruments. Results showed that the unique job demands in a call centre are pressure, working conditions, workload, and job security. The unique job resources are supervision, resources availability, task freedom, pay and benefits, opportunity for growth, and support. Work wellness was found to comprise burnout, work engagement and work-related flow. Multiple regression analysis showed that 6% of the variance in Mental Distance was predicted by Job Demands, with Working Conditions being the only significant predictor. Within Exhaustion, 11% of the variance explained was predicted by Job Demands, with Job Security and Working Conditions being the only significant predictors. No statistically significant predictions were obtained for Work Engagement and Work-Related Flow (i.e. Absorption and Flow). Recommendations were made for future research. / Thesis (M.Com. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007