These papers analyze two issues in resource economics that are currently debated in academic and policy arenas: global warming and overcompliant behavior amongst regulated sources of water pollution. The first paper examines the evidence for global warming in particular, the published estimates of the rate of global warming. The paper reproduces published results using the same data, provides evidence that the statistical model used to obtain these estimates is misspecified for the data, and re-specifies the model in order to obtain a statistically adequate model. The re-specified model indicates that trends in the surface temperature anomalies are highly nonlinear rather than linear and that currently published estimates of the degree of global warming are based on a misspecified model. It argues for caution in interpreting linear trend estimates and illustrates the importance of model misspecification testing and re-specification when modeling climate change using statistical models. The second paper examines recent evidence for overcompliant behavior amongst wastewater treatment plants whose pollutant discharges are regulated under the Clean Water Act. The historical evidence suggests that many regulated facilities do not comply with permit regulations. This behavior has been attributed to inadequate monitoring and enforcement by the regulatory agencies as well as to an institutional structure that penalizes noncompliance but that does not reward overcompliance. Against this backdrop, the evidence for significant and widespread overcompliance appears puzzling. The paper examines overcompliance with a widely- regulated pollutant, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The testable hypotheses are: whether jointness in pollution control between nitrogen and BOD can explain overcompliance and whether variation in BOD output can explain BOD overcompliance. These hypotheses are examined by developing a conceptual model of BOD overcompliance and estimating a model of BOD control. The results indicate that jointness in pollution control plays a significant role in explaining BOD overcompliance. Variation in BOD output is not a significant factor in explaining BOD overcompliance. The paper explores plausible reasons for this result and proposes significant modifications to the traditional marginal analysis of BOD overcompliance/compliance decisions. / Ph. D.

Les écosystèmes produisent de nombreux biens et services contribuant au bien-être des sociétés. Cependant, l’utilisation intensive des ressources naturelles a compromis le fonctionnement de certains de ces écosystèmes ainsi que les services qu’ils rendent. La dégradation de certains services tels que le climat et la biodiversité a entraîné une prise de conscience de leur rôle dans fonctionnement des sociétés ainsi qu’une croissance de la valeur qui leur est accordée.Pour contrecarrer la dégradation des services rendus par les écosystèmes, des mécanismes de rémunération de leur production ont été mis en place tels que le marché européen du carbone ou les obligations de compensation lorsque des ouvrages ou infrastructures dégradent la biodiversité. Toutefois, lorsque les mécanismes mis en oeuvre ne concernent qu’un seul service, ils peuvent avoir des effets, positifs ou négatifs, sur la fourniture d’autres services produits conjointement. Afin d’éviter les effets indésirables, tels que la destruction d’un service pour en produire un autre, ou des inefficacités comme le double-paiement d’une même activité, il est nécessaire de mieux connaître les relations entre les productions des écosystèmes. Par cette thèse, nous contribuons à l’identification de ces relations entre produits et services en développant une approche par la simulation de la production jointe de bois et de non-bois en forêt. / Ecosystems provide numerous goods and services to human beings. However, the intensive use of natural resources has impacted the functioning of ecosystems and reduced their production capacities. In this context, societies and individuals are giving increasing importance to environmental services (ES). To capture the values of ESs and to ensure their sustainable provision, payment mechanisms to offset the reduction in ES provision have been elaborated.These include projects such as REDD+, the European carbon market or national rules concerning compensation for biodiversity losses. Due to the jointness in ES production, single purpose offset mechanisms can either threaten or create opportunities to increase other services which do not have an explicit monetary value. To be effective, managers and decision makers need detailed information on the links between ESs. To increase the knowledge of the simultaneous production of multiple ESs, this thesis proposes a methodology based on simulations of the joint production of wood and non-wood goods in forests. Estimations of opportunity costs derived from the analysis provide information on ES gains and losses when forest owners are asked to increase one service.

A cana-de-açúcar e o dendê estão entre as culturas de maior produtividade, 6 a 7,5 mil litros de etanol/ha.ano e 4 a 6 toneladas de óleo/ha.ano, respectivamente. A produção integrada de biocombustíveis derivados dessas culturas é uma alternativa atraente para melhorar o ciclo de vida através da redução no consumo de combustível fóssil e emissão de gases de efeito estufa (GEE), bem como no aumento da eficiência energética. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desta dissertação é comparar, por meio de indicadores ambientais, o sistema produtivo brasileiro de etanol de cana-de-açúcar com uma proposta de sistema integrado de produção desse álcool com biodiesel de dendê, sendo os indicadores avaliados sob o enfoque do ciclo de vida, segundo norma ISO 14.044/2006. Considerou-se a produção dessas culturas sob bioma de Cerrado, Cerradão e pastagem degradada. Para tanto, foram avaliados o balanço de energia, balanço de carbono e mudança no uso do solo. O sistema integrado inclui a substituição de 100% do diesel, utilizado nas etapas agrícolas do ciclo de vida, por biodiesel de dendê. Foram avaliados os indicadores para diferentes frações de cana-de-açúcar destinada à produção de açúcar, considerando, nesse caso, a produção de etanol via mel final. Os dados foram levantados através de observação direta extensiva por meio de questionários e a partir de dados secundários já publicados. Foram selecionadas três usinas sucroenergéticas no interior de São Paulo e uma unidade industrial de óleo de palma localizada no Pará. Os resultados demonstraram um aumento de 164% no balanço de energia no sistema integrado de produção, quando comparado ao sistema tradicional de etanol de cana-de-açúcar. Além disso, o sistema integrado apresentou 24% de redução nas emissões de GEE. Na avaliação dos indicadores para a produção de etanol via mel final, o balanço de energia foi até 59% e 162% superior nos cenários 1 e 2, respectivamente, os quais se diferenciam pelo tipo de caldeira utilizada. Para as emissões de GEE, a redução pode chegar a 91%. A mudança no uso do solo identificou que o tempo de reposição do carbono liberado com a substituição dos biomas de Cerrado, Cerradão e Pastagem Degradada será, em média, 5, 10 e -5 anos, respectivamente. Por fim, verificou-se que a produção integrada das culturas de cana-de-açúcar e palma de dendê, para a produção de biocombustíveis, apresentou melhorias no ciclo de vida do etanol de cana-de-açúcar sob os aspectos de balanço de energia, balanço de emissões de GEE e mudança no uso do solo. / Sugarcane and palm are amongst the crops with the highest yields, which can reach 6 to 7.5 thousand liters of ethanol per hectare year and 4 to 6 metric tons of oil per hectare year, respectively. A joint production of biofuels from these crops is an interesting alternative for life cycle assessment improvement through fossil fuel and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, besides energy efficiency gains. The objective of this work is comparing the Brazilian production system sugarcane ethanol with an integrated system proposal where the ethanol and palm biodiesel are produced together. This comparative study is based on a life cycle approach using the ISO 14.044/2006 and appropriate indicators. Production systems in Cerrado, Cerradão and grassland ecosystem were considered. The energy balance, carbon balance and land use change were evaluated. The integrated system includes a 100% substitution of biodiesel by diesel, which is used in life cycle agriculture stages. Distinct fractions of sugarcane used for sugar production were assessed. When all sugarcane is sent to sugar production, ethanol is produced by molasses. The data were collected by direct observation method by questionnaire and secondary sources. Three sugarcane mills situated in São Paulo state and a palm mill located in Para state were surveyed. Results showed a 164% increase in energy balance for the joint production system in comparison to the traditional system. Besides this, the joint production system demonstrated a 24% GHG emission reduction. For ethanol production by molasses, the energy balance was up to 59% and 162% higher in scenarios 1 and 2, respectively, which differ each other through of the boiler that was utilized. For GHG emission, the reduction can reach 91%. The land use change identify an average ecosystem carbon payback time for Cerrado, Cerradão and Degraded Grassland of 5, 10, and -5 years, respectively. In conclusion, the joint production system of sugarcane ethanol and palm biodiesel presents an improvement in energy balance, GHG emissions and land use change impacts in comparison to the traditional ethanol system.

Cette thèse se propose de tenter d’évaluer les opportunités de l’économie circulaire à l’échelle territoriale et d’y engager le rôle que jouent les cycles biogéochimiques, les systèmes économiques et les frontières entre l’économie et l’environnement au cours du projet de transformation du centre de traitement de déchets ménagers à Ivry-Paris XVIII. Pour y parvenir, on peut adopter trois dimensions différentes. L’une, inspirée par la définition de biosphère proposée par Vernadsky, analyse le parcours des molécules dans la biosphère. Les deuxième, plus proche de la perspective privilégiée par Sraffa et Leontief, conduit à reconstituer une historie de la pensée économique sur la base de l’interface entre l’économie et l’environnement. La troisième, inspirée de la méthode de Jason Moore, consiste à confronter les positionnements des acteurs autour de la régulation des frontières entre les processus d’appropriation de l’économie et la préservation de l’environnement.Répondrons alors à la question suivante : Quelle circularité dans les grands cycles de la biosphère?. On peut constater que certain parcours de molécules peuvent être circulaires et/ou linéales en fonction de la temporalité de cycle. Cette notion du temps de cycle nous a aidé à cadrer les discussions sur la mesure des cycles, mais sur tout fourni un cadre pour la compréhension de la structure de la relation autour du sujet des opportunités d'économie circulaire à Paris.Nous nous proposons d’étudier une définition contextuelle de l’économie circulaire : un cadre d’analyse durable ?. La question de la nécessité d’une approche holistique pour étudier les cycles de la nature, est aussi ancienne que l’économie. Ce qui est en jeu derrière le capitalisme, c’est sa capacité de porter la vie, on se reporte à l’ouvrage L’économie et le vivant de René Passet. Il convient donc de se placer dans une perspective holistique des concepts utilisés pour l’économie écologique et l’écologie industrielle.Revenons au prix et à la structure de valeur, quel système de valeur dans les bouclages de flux entre la nature et l’économie?. La thèse propose un cadre conceptuelle d’analyse pour explorer les étapes permettant d’élaborer sa stratégie d’économie circulaire en utilisant les trois dimensions d’analyse. L’application du modèle d’économie circulaire a pour intérêt de faciliter l’identification et le choix d’un ensemble cohérent d’indicateurs interdépendants (système d’indicateurs) permettant la caractérisation des différentes dimensions de bouclage de flux de matière et d’énergie. Il est souvent possible de mesurer le bouclage des certains processus en utilisant les indicateurs proposés par Liu Yifang et pour la fondation Ellen MacArthur.Répondrons alors à la question suivante : Quel projet de transformation du centre Ivry-Paris XIII pour demain, alors que la gouvernance sur les frontières entre l’économie et l’environnement évolue ?. Pour répondre à cette question, nous avons exploré trois cas d'étude : 1. Le cas d’une mise en décharge du déchet sans mécanismes de bouclage. 2. Le cas d’un compostage urbain qui considère un bouclage de flux de la matière. 3. Le cas d’une incinération de déchets qui examine un bouclage de flux d'énergie. Le passage de l’incinération vers une variation plus vertueuse de compostage urbain a été fait en utilisant un compostage urbain de proximité (bénévole). Nous devons constater que le prix de vente du compost pose un problème d’équilibre financier dans le système de la valeur du compostage et donc, éventuellement des subventions seront nécessaires à sa bonne marche. Ensuite la tonne de compost écoulée peut être subventionnée, à hauteur du prix de la mise en décharge. Finalement, le projet de reconstruction de l’usine de traitement d’Ivry-Paris XIII montre aussi une certaine complexité d'interaction entre acteurs publics, privés, et la société civile, qui pose la question des capacités de concertation de l’État. / 1. Introduction : This thesis attempts to evaluate the opportunities of the circular economy at the territorial scale and to engage the role of biogeochemical cycles, economic systems and the institutional boundaries between the environment and the economy, during the transformation project of the waste treatment center at Ivry-Paris XVIII. To achieve this thesis, three different dimensions can be taken into consideration. The first one, inspired by the definition of biosphere proposed by Vernadsky, analyzes the pathways of molecules such as nitrogen in the biosphere. The second one, closer to the perspective supported by Sraffa and Leontief, leads to reconstruct a history of economics based on the interface between economy and environment. The third one, inspired by Moore's dialectical method, is to confront the positioning of the actors around the regulation of the boundaries between the processes of appropriation of the economy and the preservation of the environment.2. Methodology : The fourth part of the thesis aims at proposing a conceptual framework of successive or simultaneous steps to develop its strategy of circular economy using the three analysis dimensions, In this context, The thesis proposes a Sraffa’s typology of ten structures of the system to formalize economic-physical relations.The application of the circular economy model has the advantage of facilitating the identification and selection of a coherent set of interdependent indicators (system of indicators) enabling the characterization of the different dimensions of the close of material and energy flows. It is often possible to measure the closure of the loops of certain processes using indicators proposed by Liu Yifang and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation.3. Case of study - What Ivry-Paris XIII plant project would suit for tomorrow? : To answer this question, we explored three cases of study. 1. The case of landfilling of waste without looping mechanisms, 2. The case of urban composting which considers close the loops of the matter flow. 3. The case of incineration of waste which examines looping of energy flows.On the basis of the results of the indicators, our three case studies correspond to different flows configurations in the same territory.The move from incineration to urban composting has been explained on the basis of non-profit urban composting. This volunteer characteristic of the house composting can be illustrated by a Sraffian profit rate equal to zero. We must note that the selling price of compost poses a financial problem in the value system and hence subsidies will be necessary for its smooth running. Then, the ton of compost can be subsidized, at the price of a landfill.We will also be able to propose an alternative subsidy to household composting therefore; an industrial composting that can be carried out by a recycling company such as Bio Yvelines Services. In addition, the transition to the incineration can be managed by the Metropolitan Household Waste Agency (Syctom). The project of rebuilding the Ivry-Paris XIII treatment plant also shows a certain complexity of interaction between public and private actors and civil society, which raises the question of the state's capacity for a public discussion.

I föreliggande studie undersöktes samtal där tre personer som stammar deltog i interaktioner med olika deltagarstrukturer; med en annan person som stammar, med en närstående person samt med en person i en institutionell kontext. Studien syftade till att analysera likheter och skillnader mellan samtal med olika deltagarstrukturer, med avseende på fenomenen samkonstruktion, blickkontakt vid samkonstruktion och uppbackning. Sammanlagt medverkade tolv personer, i totalt nio dyader. De nio samtalen, som var mellan 35 och 55 minuter långa, spelades in och analyserades enligt principer från Conversation Analysis (CA). Även beräkningar utfördes på fenomenen verbala uppbackningar, samkonstruktion och blickkontakt vid samkonstruktion. Av resultatet framkommer att det genomförs färre samkonstruktioner i de institutionella samtalen, och en tendens till att det görs fler samkonstruktioner i närståendesamtalen. Personerna som stammar gör färre samkonstruktioner i de institutionella samtalen, och gör flest samkonstruktioner i samtalen mellan två personer som stammar. Närståendesamtalen är den deltagarstruktur där det förekommer lägst antal stamningsrelaterade samkonstruktioner. Vid samkonstruktion har deltagarna vanligtvis blickkontakt. Genomgående gäller att samtalspartnern gör fler verbala uppbackningar än personerna som stammar. Det förekommer fler verbala uppbackningar i de samtal där samtalspartnerna inte känner varandra, än i de samtal då de känner varandra. Det är relativt ovanligt att verbal uppbackning förekommer i samband med stamning. / In the present study recordings of three people who stutter in interaction with different interlocutors were analysed. The participant frameworks were the person who stutters with another person who stutters, with a close friend and with an unknown person in an institutional context. The aim of the present study was to analyse similarities and differences among the interactions with different participant frameworks, regarding acknowledgement tokens, joint productions and eye contact in joint productions. In all, there were twelve participants taking part in nine dyads. The nine interactions were between 35 and 55 minutes long, and analysed according to the principles of Conversation Analysis (CA). Calculations were performed on the phenomena verbal acknowledgement tokens, joint productions and eye contact in joint productions. The result shows that there are fewer cases of joint productions in the institutional conversations and that there is a tendency that joint productions are most frequent in the conversations with a close friend. The people who stutter perform fewer joint productions in the institutional conversations and the most joint productions in the conversations between two people who stutter. The conversation with a close friend is the type of conversation with the lowest prevalence of joint productions related to stuttering. The participants mainly have eye contact when participating in joint productions. A consistent feature in all conversations is that the conversational partner produces more verbal acknowledgement tokens than the people who stutter. There are more verbal acknowledgement tokens in the conversations where the interlocutors are not acquainted. It is rather uncommon that verbal acknowledgement tokens appear in instances of stuttering.

A cana-de-açúcar e o dendê estão entre as culturas de maior produtividade, 6 a 7,5 mil litros de etanol/ha.ano e 4 a 6 toneladas de óleo/ha.ano, respectivamente. A produção integrada de biocombustíveis derivados dessas culturas é uma alternativa atraente para melhorar o ciclo de vida através da redução no consumo de combustível fóssil e emissão de gases de efeito estufa (GEE), bem como no aumento da eficiência energética. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desta dissertação é comparar, por meio de indicadores ambientais, o sistema produtivo brasileiro de etanol de cana-de-açúcar com uma proposta de sistema integrado de produção desse álcool com biodiesel de dendê, sendo os indicadores avaliados sob o enfoque do ciclo de vida, segundo norma ISO 14.044/2006. Considerou-se a produção dessas culturas sob bioma de Cerrado, Cerradão e pastagem degradada. Para tanto, foram avaliados o balanço de energia, balanço de carbono e mudança no uso do solo. O sistema integrado inclui a substituição de 100% do diesel, utilizado nas etapas agrícolas do ciclo de vida, por biodiesel de dendê. Foram avaliados os indicadores para diferentes frações de cana-de-açúcar destinada à produção de açúcar, considerando, nesse caso, a produção de etanol via mel final. Os dados foram levantados através de observação direta extensiva por meio de questionários e a partir de dados secundários já publicados. Foram selecionadas três usinas sucroenergéticas no interior de São Paulo e uma unidade industrial de óleo de palma localizada no Pará. Os resultados demonstraram um aumento de 164% no balanço de energia no sistema integrado de produção, quando comparado ao sistema tradicional de etanol de cana-de-açúcar. Além disso, o sistema integrado apresentou 24% de redução nas emissões de GEE. Na avaliação dos indicadores para a produção de etanol via mel final, o balanço de energia foi até 59% e 162% superior nos cenários 1 e 2, respectivamente, os quais se diferenciam pelo tipo de caldeira utilizada. Para as emissões de GEE, a redução pode chegar a 91%. A mudança no uso do solo identificou que o tempo de reposição do carbono liberado com a substituição dos biomas de Cerrado, Cerradão e Pastagem Degradada será, em média, 5, 10 e -5 anos, respectivamente. Por fim, verificou-se que a produção integrada das culturas de cana-de-açúcar e palma de dendê, para a produção de biocombustíveis, apresentou melhorias no ciclo de vida do etanol de cana-de-açúcar sob os aspectos de balanço de energia, balanço de emissões de GEE e mudança no uso do solo. / Sugarcane and palm are amongst the crops with the highest yields, which can reach 6 to 7.5 thousand liters of ethanol per hectare year and 4 to 6 metric tons of oil per hectare year, respectively. A joint production of biofuels from these crops is an interesting alternative for life cycle assessment improvement through fossil fuel and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, besides energy efficiency gains. The objective of this work is comparing the Brazilian production system sugarcane ethanol with an integrated system proposal where the ethanol and palm biodiesel are produced together. This comparative study is based on a life cycle approach using the ISO 14.044/2006 and appropriate indicators. Production systems in Cerrado, Cerradão and grassland ecosystem were considered. The energy balance, carbon balance and land use change were evaluated. The integrated system includes a 100% substitution of biodiesel by diesel, which is used in life cycle agriculture stages. Distinct fractions of sugarcane used for sugar production were assessed. When all sugarcane is sent to sugar production, ethanol is produced by molasses. The data were collected by direct observation method by questionnaire and secondary sources. Three sugarcane mills situated in São Paulo state and a palm mill located in Para state were surveyed. Results showed a 164% increase in energy balance for the joint production system in comparison to the traditional system. Besides this, the joint production system demonstrated a 24% GHG emission reduction. For ethanol production by molasses, the energy balance was up to 59% and 162% higher in scenarios 1 and 2, respectively, which differ each other through of the boiler that was utilized. For GHG emission, the reduction can reach 91%. The land use change identify an average ecosystem carbon payback time for Cerrado, Cerradão and Degraded Grassland of 5, 10, and -5 years, respectively. In conclusion, the joint production system of sugarcane ethanol and palm biodiesel presents an improvement in energy balance, GHG emissions and land use change impacts in comparison to the traditional ethanol system.

Research on service compensation is rare. In this article we examine different compensation rules for integrated services (IS) which are produced jointly by a service provider and his client. Examples are consulting, advertising or management training. We distinguish three different compensation rules and compare them with joint profit maximization where both, service provider and client act as one organizational unit. The ompensation rules are (1) the input based compensation (IBC) characterized by a compensation that is based on work hours or work days, (2) the sales based compensation (SBC) with the compensation based on client’s sales and (3) the profit based compensation (PBC) with compensation based on client’s profits. We can show that under reasonable, realistic conditions the IBC (surprisingly) leads to better results for the service provider and for the client as compared to the PBC and the SBC.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the levels of interdependency (simultaneity) between the performances of two direct opponents in professional football. More specifically, interdependency between performances is investigated at three different levels. Firstly, empirical analyses are conducted in order to assess the levels of interdependency between the performances of two teams in direct competition using team-game observations. Secondly, data on team formations and player starting positions within these formations is utilised in order to uniquely match individual players to a sole opponent on the field of play. Further empirical analyses are then conducted in order to investigate the levels of interdependency at this more isolated individual player level using player-game observations. Finally, an empirical investigation into the levels of interdependency between the performances of a positional unit (defence or attack) and their opposing team (as a collective) is conducted using positional unit-game observations. An exclusive and detailed data set ranging from the 2007-08 season to the 2010-11 season is utilised in order to estimate several production functions for teams, individual players and positional units competing in the German Bundesliga. The results in all empirical analyses confirm that the performance of the opponent is significant. At a team and positional unit level, no evidence is found to suggest that the performances of two direct opponents(s) are interdependent, however the results reveal that the recent past performances of the opponent(s) have a significant linear impact upon the performance of the subject. In particular, relative team form going in to a match is revealed to have a significant impact upon the performance of their opponent. At an individual player level, evidence is found to confirm that the performances of players in direct competition are interdependent thus supporting the sports economics theory of joint production. Specifically, the results reveal that the performances of defenders have a significant and negative impact upon the performances of their opposing attackers.

Les agroécosystèmes font face à un déclin des services écosystémiques (SE) de régulation, non-marchands. Nous l’interprétons via deux concepts économiques : les biens publics qui appellent une régulation, et la production jointe qui souligne les conséquences des interactions entre SE dans leur régulation.Cette thèse étudie comment accroître la fourniture de SE non-marchands par des incitations économiques, en prenant en compte la multiplicité des SE et les interactions entre eux.Nous étudions d’abord la régulation des biens publics joints à l’aide de microéconomie théorique. Ensuite, nous menons une analyse appliquée avec des données agroécologiques simulées et des méthodes numériques pour définir les solutions coût-efficientes et les incitations pour leur mise en œuvre. Nous comparons plus particulièrement les incitations basées sur les actions et sur les résultats.Nous montrons théoriquement que les interactions entre SE rendent leur régulation plus complexe, notamment avec des incitations basées sur les résultats, et quand le coût varie selon les bouquets de SE. Dans l’analyse appliquée, nous montrons que prendre en compte le coût de la fourniture des SE est crucial pour maximiser leur fourniture avec un budget limité. Nous montrons que les incitations basées sur les résultats sélectionnent les solutions coût-efficientes mais induisent un budget plus élevé que les incitations basées sur les actions, à cause des interactions entre SE. Enfin, nous montrons que l’analyse à l’échelle du paysage et l’hétérogénéité modifient les solutions qui maximisent les SE, mais pas les propriétés des deux types d’incitations.Nos résultats soulignent que les politiques agro-environnementales doivent cibler les services écosystémiques de manière intégrée, si possible à l’échelle de la ferme ou du paysage et considérer le coût de leur fourniture. Les incitations basées sur les résultats ne sont pas la solution à tous les problèmes des politiques agroenvironnementales. / Agroecosystems show a decline in regulating, non-marketed ecosystem services (ES). We interpret this decline through two economic concepts: public goods, which call for regulation, and joint production, which underlines the role of interactions among ecosystem services in their regulation.This thesis studies how to increase the provision of non-marketed ES through the implementation of economic incentives, while accounting for their multiplicity and the complex interactions among them.We first study the regulation of joint public goods with microeconomic theory. We then carry an applied analysis with simulated agroecological data and numerical methods to define cost-efficient solutions and simulate the implementation these solutions with economic incentives. We especially compare result-based and action-based incentives.We show theoretically that interactions among ES make their regulation more complex, especially with result-based incentives and when the production cost varies among bundles of ES. In the applied analysis, we show that accounting for the cost is crucial to maximise ES with a limited budget. We show that result-based incentives select cost-efficient bundles of ES but lead to higher policy budgets than action-based ones, due to interactions among ES. Eventually, we show that considering the landscape scale and heterogeneity plays on the solutions maximising ES, but not on the comparison between result-based and action-based incentives.Our results underline that agri-environmental policies need to target ES in a integrative way, at the farm or landscape scale, and consider the cost of providing non-marketed ES. Result-based incentives don’t solve all issues of agri-environmental policies.