We experimentally demonstrate a RF-assisted four-state continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) system in the presence of turbulence. The atmospheric turbulence channel is emulated by two spatial light modulators (SLMs) on which two randomly generated azimuthal phase patterns are recorded yielding Andrews' azimuthal phase spectrum. Frequency and phase locking are not required in our system thanks to the proposed digital phase noise cancellation (PNC) stage. Besides, the transmittance fluctuation can be monitored accurately by the DC level in this PNC stage, which is free of post-processing noise. The mean excess noise is measured to be 0.014, and the maximum secret key rate of >20Mbit/s can be obtained with the transmittance of 0.85, while employing the commercial PIN photodetectors.

This thesis investigates the phenomena of phase stability in a fiber-optical MZI (Mach-Zehnder Interferometer). The MZI is a key building block of optical systems for use in experiments with both continuous-wave light and with single photons. By splitting incoming light into two beams and allowing it to interfere with itself, an interference pattern is visible at the output, and this phenomena can be used to code information. This is the operating principle in, for example, QKD (Quantum Key Distribution) experiments. This interference requires coherence that is higher than the length difference between the beams that the incoming light is split into. Particularly the phase of the beams must be equal to achieve constructive interference. If one beam is phase-shifted (with respect to the other) due to the light having traversed a longer path, only partially constructive interference is achieved. If the phase shift also varies with time this leads to a system where experiments can no longer reliably be performed. Sources of these fluctuations are thermal, acoustic or mechanical. Fiber-optical interferometers are particularly sensitive to path length fluctuations of the waveguides as the fiber-optic medium contracts and elongates with temperature, and also has a larger surface area for circulating air to mechanically disturb the waveguides than bulk optics interferometers. In this thesis, a solution to environment-induced phase drift is presented by evaluating implementations of feedback algorithms for automatic control. The algorithms PID (Proportional-, Integral-, Derivative controller) and an ICA (IncrementalControl Algorithm) have been investigated and the performance of these controllers has been compared when used with, and without, optical enclosures. The algorithms are implemented in an FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array) and the controller actuates an electro-optical phase modulator that can add a phase shift to one of the light beams in the MZI. This thesis shows that significant improvement in the optical stability can be achieved with active control compared to an interferometer without active phase control. / Det här examensarbetet undersöker fenomenet fasstabilitet i en fiber-optisk MZI (Mach-Zehnder-Interferometer). MZI:n är en viktig byggsten i optiska system som används till experiment med både kontinuerligt emitterande lasrar och med enskilda fotoner. Genom att dela upp inkommande ljus i två strålar och låta det interferera med sig själv så bildas ett interferensmöster vid utgången vilket kan användas för att koda information. Det här är huvudprincipen bakom, till exempel, experiment inom QKD (kvantnyckeldistribution, eng: Quantum Key Distribution). Denna interferens förutsätter en koherens (högre än längdskillnaden mellan strålarna) mellan strålarna som det inkommande ljuset är uppdelat i. Särskilt måste fasen hos de bägge strålarna vara lika för att åstadkomma fullständig konstruktiv intereferens. Om en stråle är fasförskjuten (i förhållande till den andra) på grund av att ljuset har färdats en längre sträcka så uppnås endast delvis konstruktiv interferens. Om fasförskjutningen även varierar med tiden så leder det till ett system där experiment inte längre kan pålitligt utföras. Sådana fluktuationer är orsakade av termiskt, akustiskt samt mekaniskt varierande effekter. Fiberoptiska interferometrar är särskilt känsliga mot förändringar i vågledarnas längd. Detta på grund av att det fiberoptiska mediet dras ihop respektive sträcks ut med temperaturen, samt att fibern har en större ytarea som cirkulerande luft kan påverka mekaniskt jämfört med interferometrar konstruerade av bulkoptik. I det här examensarbetet presenteras en lösning på problemet med miljöinducerad fasskift genom att utvärdera reglertekniska återkopplande algoritmer. Algoritmerna PID (Proportionell-, Integrerande-, Deriverande regulator) samt ICA (Inkrementell Regleralgoritm, eng: Incremental Control Algorithm) har undersökts och deras prestanda har jämförts med samt utan avskärmning. Algoritmerna har implementerats i en FPGA (fältprogrammerbar grindmatris, eng: Field-Programmable Gate Array) och regulatorn styr en elektrooptisk fasmodulator som kan addera en fasförskjutning till en av ljusstrålarna i MZI:n. Resultat visar att passiv avskärmning inte är tillräckligt utan behöver användas tillsammans med aktiv reglering för att uppnå stabilitet över en längre tidsperiod. Detta examensarbete visar på att en signifikant förbättring i den optiska stabiliteten kan uppnås med aktiv reglering jämfört med en interferometer utan aktiv fasreglering.

To address key challenges for both quantum communication and quantum computing applications in a simultaneous manner, we propose to employ the photon angular momentum approach by invoking the well-known fact that photons carry both the spin angular momentum (SAM) and the orbital angular momentum (OAM). SAM is associated with polarization, while OAM is associated with azimuthal phase dependence of the complex electric field. Given that OAM eigenstates are mutually orthogonal, in principle, an arbitrary number of bits per single photon can be transmitted. The ability to generate/analyze states with different photon angular momentum, by using either holographic or interferometric methods, allows the realization of quantum states in multidimensional Hilbert space. Because OAM states provide an infinite basis state, while SAM states are 2-D only, the OAM can also be used to increase the security for quantum key distribution (QKD) applications and improve computational power for quantum computing applications. The goal of this paper is to describe photon angular momentum based deterministic universal quantum qudit gates, namely, {generalized-X, generalized-Z, generalized-CNOT} qudit gates, and different quantum modules of importance for various applications, including (fault-tolerant) quantum computing, teleportation, QKD, and quantum error correction. For instance, the basic quantum modules for quantum teleportation applications include the generalized-Bell-state generation module and the QFT-module. The basic quantum module for quantum error correction and fault-tolerant computing is the nonbinary syndrome calculator module. The basic module for entanglement assisted QKD is either the generalized-Bell-state generation module or the Weyl-operator-module. The possibility of implementing all these modules in integrated optics is discussed as well. Finally, we provide security analysis of entanglement assisted multidimensional QKD protocols, employing the proposed qudit modules, by taking into account the imperfect generation of OAM modes.

The security protocols are widely used for providing safe communication. They are used for creating private communication channels in unsecured area. This thesis deals with the design of such protocols and their properties. The first part deals with properties and requirements of designed protocol as well as with the most common attacks on protocols. In the second part, the method of trace formula is described in more detail. This method is used for analytic design of security protocols. Later, the library of automated functions was created upon the principles of the method. The library support both the handling of protocol properties and protocol design. The thesis concludes with some examples of generated protocols.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / O presente trabalho à divido em duas partes. Na primeira, a utilizaÃÃo do interferÃmetro de Sagnac em informaÃÃo quÃntica à analisada atravÃs da aplicaÃÃo do mesmo em trÃs problemas: MediÃÃo livre de interaÃÃo, distribuiÃÃo quÃntica de chaves e compartilhamento de segredo. Para a mediÃÃo livre de interaÃÃo, dois sistemas usando o Sagnac foram propostos. Considerando detectores ideais e ausÃncia de perdas, um deles apresenta probabilidade de sucesso de 25% por fÃton consumido, enquanto que o segundo apresenta probabilidade de determinar corretamente a presenÃa do objeto prÃxima a 100% por fÃton consumido. Para a distribuiÃÃo quÃntica de chaves foi proposta uma configuraÃÃo diferente das existentes, sendo a principal diferenÃa a ausÃncia de retorno do pulso enviado, como ocorre nos sistemas com Sagnac anteriormente propostos. Isto evita ataques do tipo Cavalo de TrÃia. Por fim, foi proposta uma configuraÃÃo Ãptica que permite que um segredo compartilhado por cinco pessoas, localmente distantes, seja usado apenas quando todos os cinco concordarem. A segunda parte da dissertaÃÃo apresenta um estudo analÃtico e numÃrico da variaÃÃo do entrelaÃamento de estados bipartites de qubits quando da propagaÃÃo dos mesmos em canais quÃnticos ruidosos. Em particular, foi encontrada uma fÃrmula exata que relaciona os entrelaÃamentos dos estados na entrada e saÃda do canal, quando o estado na entrada à puro e o canal à modelado pela interaÃÃo do estado bipartite (sinal) com um qubit (estado do canal) atravÃs de uma operaÃÃo unitÃria canÃnica. / This work is divided into two parts. In the first one, the use of the Sagnac interferometer in quantum information is analyzed applying it in three problems: interaction-free measurement, quantum key distribution, and secret sharing. For the interaction-free measurement two systems using Sagnac interferometer were proposed. Considering ideal detectors and loss less devices, one of them has a success probability of 25% for each photon used while the other presents the probability of getting success to detect the presence of the object close to 100% for each photon used. For quantum key distribution, it was proposed a different setup, where the main difference is that the pulse sent by the transmitter does not come back to him/her as happen with the systems based on Sagnac proposed before. This avoids the Trojan horse attack. Finally, it was proposed an optical configuration where it is possible to share a secret among five users, locally distant, that could be used only when all five persons agreed. The second part of this dissertation presents an analytical and numerical study of the entanglement variation of bipartite states of qubits during propagation in a quantum noisy channel. Particularly, it was found an exactly formula which relates the entanglement of states in the input and output of the channel, when the input state is pure and the channel is modeled by a canonical unitary operation.

<p>Quantum key growing, often called quantum cryptography or quantum key distribution, is a method using some properties of quantum mechanics to create a secret shared cryptography key even if an eavesdropper has access to unlimited computational power. A vital but often neglected part of the method is unconditionally secure message authentication. This thesis examines the security aspects of authentication in quantum key growing. Important concepts are formalized as Python program source code, a comparison between quantum key growing and a classical system using trusted couriers is included, and the chain rule of entropy is generalized to any Rényi entropy. Finally and most importantly, a security flaw is identified which makes the probability to eavesdrop on the system undetected approach unity as the system is in use for a long time, and a solution to this problem is provided.</p>

Quantum key growing, often called quantum cryptography or quantum key distribution, is a method using some properties of quantum mechanics to create a secret shared cryptography key even if an eavesdropper has access to unlimited computational power. A vital but often neglected part of the method is unconditionally secure message authentication. This thesis examines the security aspects of authentication in quantum key growing. Important concepts are formalized as Python program source code, a comparison between quantum key growing and a classical system using trusted couriers is included, and the chain rule of entropy is generalized to any Rényi entropy. Finally and most importantly, a security flaw is identified which makes the probability to eavesdrop on the system undetected approach unity as the system is in use for a long time, and a solution to this problem is provided. / ICG QC

Coding is an essential technology for efficient fiber-optic communications and secure quantum communications. In particular, low-density parity-check (LDPC) coding is favoured due to its strong error correction capability and high-throughput implementation feasibility. In fiber-optic communications, it has been realized that advanced high-order modulation formats and soft-decision forward error correction (FEC) such as LDPC codes are the key technologies for the next-generation high-speed optical communications. Therefore, energy-efficient LDPC coding in combination with advanced modulation formats is an important topic that needs to be studied for fiber-optic communications. In secure quantum communications, large-alphabet quantum key distribution (QKD) is becoming attractive recently due to its potential in improving the efficiency of key exchange. To recover the carried information bits, efficient information reconciliation is desirable, for which the use of LDPC coding is essential. In this dissertation, we first explore different efficient LDPC coding schemes for optical transmission of polarization-division multiplexed quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) signals. We show that high energy efficiency can be achieved without incurring extra overhead and complexity. We then study the transmission performance of LDPC-coded turbo equalization for QAM signals in a realistic fiber link as well as that of pragmatic turbo equalizers. Further, leveraging the polarization freedom of light, we expand the signal constellation into a four-dimensional (4D) space and evaluate the performance of LDPC-coded 4D signals in terms of transmission reach. Lastly, we study the security of a proposed weak-coherent-state large-alphabet QKD protocol and investigate the information reconciliation efficiency based on LDPC coding.

<p>Strong coupling between light and matter has been demonstrated both in classical</p><p>cavity quantum electrodynamics (QED) systems and in more recent circuit-QED</p><p>experiments. This enables the generation of strong nonlinear photon-photon interactions</p><p>at the single-photon level, which is of great interest for the observation</p><p>of quantum nonlinear optical phenomena, the control of light quanta in quantum</p><p>information protocols such as quantum networking, as well as the study of</p><p>strongly correlated quantum many-body systems using light. Recently, strong</p><p>coupling has also been realized in a variety of one-dimensional (1D) waveguide-</p><p>QED experimental systems, which in turn makes them promising candidates for</p><p>quantum information processing. Compared to cavity-QED systems, there are</p><p>two new features in waveguide-QED: the existence of a continuum of states and</p><p>the restricted 1D phase space, which together bring in new physical effects, such</p><p>as the bound-state effects. This thesis consists of two parts: 1) understanding the</p><p>fundamental interaction between local quantum objects, such as two-level systems</p><p>and four-level systems, and photons confined in the waveguide; 2) exploring</p><p>its implications in quantum information processing, in particular photonic</p><p>quantum computation and quantum key distribution.</p><p>First, we demonstrate that by coupling a two-level system (TLS) or three/fourlevel</p><p>system to a 1D continuum, strongly-correlated photons can be generated</p><p>inside the waveguide. Photon-photon bound states, which decay exponentially as a function of the relative coordinates of photons, appear in multiphoton scattering</p><p>processes. As a result, photon bunching and antibunching can be observed</p><p>in the photon-photon correlation function, and nonclassical light source can be</p><p>generated on demand. In the case of an N-type four-level system, we show</p><p>that the effective photon-photon interaction mediated by the four-level system,</p><p>gives rise to a variety of nonlinear optical phenomena, including photon blockade,</p><p>photon-induced tunneling, and creation of single-photon states and photon</p><p>pairs with a high degree of spectral entanglement, all in the absence of a cavity.</p><p>However, to enable greater quantum networking potential using waveguide-</p><p>QED, it is important to study systems having more than just one TLS/qubit.</p><p>We develop a numerical Green function method to study cooperative effects in</p><p>a system of two qubits coupled to a 1D waveguide. Quantum beats emerge in</p><p>photon-photon correlations, and persist to much longer time scales because of</p><p>non-Markovian processes. In addition, this system can be used to generate a</p><p>high-degree of long-distance entanglement when one of the two qubits is driven</p><p>by an on-resonance laser, further paving the way toward waveguide-QED-based</p><p>quantum networks.</p><p>Furthermore, based on our study of light-matter interactions in waveguide-</p><p>QED, we investigate its implications in quantum information processing. First,</p><p>we study quantum key distribution using the sub-Possonian single photon source</p><p>obtained by scattering a coherent state off a two-level system. The rate for key</p><p>generation is found to be twice as large as for other sources. Second, we propose</p><p>a new scheme for scalable quantum computation using flying qubits--propagating</p><p>photons in a one-dimensional waveguide--interacting with matter qubits. Photonphoton</p><p>interactions are mediated by the coupling to a three- or four-level system,</p><p>based on which photon-photon -phase gates (Controlled-NOT) can be implemented for universal quantum computation. We show that high gate fidelity is</p><p>possible given recent dramatic experimental progress in superconducting circuits</p><p>and photonic-crystal waveguides. The proposed system can be an important</p><p>building block for future on-chip quantum networks.</p> / Dissertation

[pt] A criptografia quântica foi proposta como uma solução para o problema da distribuição de chaves criptográficas com segurança total garantida pelos princípios da mecânica quântica. Através dessa técnica é possível saber se um espião tentou interceptar a transmissão, o que é impossível utilizando técnicas de transmissão clássicas. Nesse trabalho foi feito um breve resumo da teoria de criptografia quântica, de suas técnicas de transmissão e dos problemas tecnológicos enfrentados. Foi analisada em detalhes a técnica de transmissão de qubits utilizando codificação de freqüência e feita uma comparação dos diferentes esquemas de modulação frente aos protocolos BB84 e B92. Foi demonstrado que os dois esquemas de modulação existentes (AM-AM e PM-PM) são na realidade equivalentes e foi proposto um novo esquema, o AM-PM o único que suporta o protocolo BB84 clássico. Medidas foram realizadas classicamente nos formatos AM-AM e AM-PM. / [en] Quantum cryptography has been proposed as a solution to the cryptographic key distribution problem with absolute security guaranteed by the principles of quantum mechanics. Through this scheme it is possible to find out whether a spy tried to eavesdrop on the transmission, which was impossible to discover using classical transmission techniques. In this work a brief review of quantum cryptography theory, transmission techniques and technological problems involved were performed. It was analyzed in detail the transmission technique employing frequency coding, and a comparison was made between the different modulation schemes and the BB84 and B92 protocols. It was demonstrated that the two existing modulation formats (AM-AM and PM-PM) are in fact equivalent and a new format (AM-PM) was proposed, the only one able to accommodate classical BB84. Classical measurements were performed on the AM-AM and AMPM formats.