Thesis (Ph.D. (Agricultural Economics )) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Regardless of the strategies adopted globally and nationwide to fight food insecurity within communities, particularly in the rural context, poverty becomes a major constituent which translates to most rural households experiencing food insecurity shocks. Given the high unemployment rate in South Africa which triggers several household’s vulnerability to food insecurity, the country has diverse natural resources which include indigenous plants such as Indigenous Leafy Vegetables (ILVs), which can be used as food and for business purposes by its residents. Irrespective of the diversity of ILVs in South Africa, there is a significant decline in the production and consumption of ILVs particularly in rural areas where these vegetables are mostly available. In addition, production and consumption of ILVs may not only address food insecurity but these vegetables may benefit households through the income obtained from their sales. The income generated from sales of ILVs may therefore assist towards improving and sustaining rural livelihood needs. Given this background information, the study aimed at assessing ILV production for income generation and food security among rural households in the Eastern Cape Province (ECP) of South Africa. The study was conducted within the three district municipalities of the ECP which were selected because statistics report these districts to be the most affected areas by poverty within the province. These districts are OR Tambo District Municipality (ORTDM), Alfred Nzo District Municipality (ANDM) and Joe Gqabi District Municipality (JGDM). Multistage and proportional random sampling procedures were employed to select households which could participate in the study. Thus, 407 households within these three (3) districts municipalities were used for the purposes of the study. The study also included interviewing role players within the ILV production value chain, thus a snowball sampling procedure was used to select role players. Sixteen hawkers and three input suppliers were interviewed from the three district municipalities. In addition, from the 407 households that were interviewed, 260 households from the three district municipalities reported to be producers of ILVs. A structured questionnaire was therefore used to collect pertaining data allied in achieving the aim of the study. The collected data was captured using Excel 2016, after data cleaning, it was then exported to Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 for analysis. Numerous analytical models were used from SPSS 25. For instance, to identify and describe socio-economic characteristics of households, to assess the most produced ILVs from the study areas and to identify role players within the ILV production value chain, descriptive statistics in a form of means, percentages, frequencies, and standard deviation was used. To determine factors which influence production of ILVs, a Binary Logistic Regression Model was used. A Multinomial Logistic Regression model was used to determine factors which influence different uses of ILVs by households and to determine factors influencing food security status among households. A gross margin analysis was used to estimate viability from each ILV produced, harvested and sold, while Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was used to measure food security status among households. Lastly, a correlation matrix was also used to determine the relationship between the role players and their functions among the ILV production value chain. Based on the results, the study therefore concluded that, from the three district municipalities used in the study, there are various ILVs growing naturally and produced. The production of ILVs from these municipalities is habituated by socio economic characteristics of households, wherein households use ILVs for various purposes which include these vegetables as source of food, medicine and livestock feed. The use of ILVs among households is influenced by socio-economic characteristics and seasonal availability of ILVs in ORTDM, while in ANDM and JGDM, the use of ILVs by households is conditioned by socio-economic characteristics of households, knowledge/ awareness related to nutrition and health benefits of ILVs and seasonal production of ILVs. Furthermore, this research concludes that, ILVs have a potential of diversifying diets and addressing food insecurity problems within rural parts of the three districts. Given the positive gross margins from the three districts, production and selling of ILVs has a potential to contribute to rural household income. Lastly, the study concludes that, the ILV production value chain system lacks governmental support in the form of institutional engagement since there is no evidence of extension officer support from these three district municipalities concerning ILVs production. To this end, the study recommends that, policy makers should further establish inclusion of ILVs in both farming and food systems. Also, government and related institutions which focus on sustainable rural development must intervene in promoting production of ILVs particularly within rural contexts since production of these vegetables may alleviate poverty through job creation, addressing food insecurity and income generation. Thus, a successful intervention of government and policy makers in ILV production would have a potential of translating to sustainable rural livelihoods / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been a subject of increasing interest among academics and business practitioners globally. This thesis contributes to the discourse on CSR in the context of the Nigerian oil industry with regard to corporate-community relations. Specifically, the thesis constitutes a critique of CSR initiatives by multinational oil companies (MOC) operating in the Niger Delta region and their impact on the traditional livelihoods of local communities. The research attempts to understand the link between CSR and Psychological contract from the perspective of both the host communities and the MOCs. This thesis examines community perceptions, expectations and seeks to interpret the relationship between the host communities and the MOCs. The study provides empirical data through the use of twenty-eight semi-structured interviews and three focus groups. This is significant given that most of the research conducted into CSR in this region has been limited to descriptive and extensive theoretical explanations. Findings from the research suggest that the relationship between the host communities and the MOC is a very complex one and that the impact of the MOCs activities can be interpreted from the host communities’ negative actions. The thesis makes an important contribution to the emerging literature on social license to operate (SLO) and in what manner the local communities seek to enforce it. It also offers an alternative approach to CSR based on need assessment and stakeholder involvement rather than corporate obligations and expectations from society in general. / Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND), Cross River State government in Nigeria, and Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC).

No description available.

Die andauernde Armut, Nahrungsmittel- und Ernährungsunsicherheit im Subsahara-Afrika (SSA) verweist auf die Notwendigkeit für einen Paradigmenwechsel in Ernährungssystemen, der auf die Diversifizierung von Nahrungsmittelketten wie z.B. durch unzureichend genutzten Pflanzenarten (UPS) abzielt. In diesen Pflanzenarten steckt das Potenzial, SSA mit ertragreichen, ernährungssensiblen und resilienten Nahrungsmittelsystemen zu versorgen. Jüngste Studien belegen, dass UPS zur Ernährungssicherheit beitragen, indem sie Grundnahrungsmittel ergänzen, einen Puffer in Zeiten von Knappheit darstellen und die Nahrungsqualität erhöhen. Sie können somit als ein Hebel zur Armutslinderung verstanden werden. Trotz der Bedeutsamkeit von UPS, fokussiert sich die bestehende Literatur vorwiegend auf angebaute Nahrungsmittel und Nutzpflanzen. Diese Dissertation trägt dazu bei, die Faktoren Geschlecht, kollektives Handeln und die Auswahl von Vermarktungskanälen unter den Sammler:innen von UPS zu verstehen. Sie besteht aus drei Aufsätzen, die auf unterschiedliche Weise einen Beitrag zur existierenden Literatur zu UPS leisten. Alle drei Aufsätze basieren auf Haushaltsbefragungen von 864 Baobabsammler:innen (Baobab ist ein Beispiel für UPS) in Malawi, im Jahr 2021. Im ersten Aufsatz analysieren wir die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede bei der Sammlung und Vermarktung von Baobab. Insbesondere evaluieren wir die Unterschiede zwischen weiblichen Baobabmanagerinnen (FBMs) und männlichen Baobabmanagern (MBMs) in Bezug auf die gesammelte Menge Baobab. Wir erweitern unsere Analyse und betrachten auch die Unterschiede zwischen FBMs in Bezug auf ihren Familienstand (verheiratete FBMs vs. unverheiratete FBMs). Bestehende Literatur über Geschlecht und Agrarwirtschaft hat sich überwiegend auf die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede in Bezug auf agrarwirtschaftliche Ertragfähigkeit und die Einführung von Technologien fokussiert, insbesondere im Hinblick auf den Hauptpflanzenbestand in Afrika. Dahingegen existieren begrenzte empirische Untersuchungen über die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede zwischen den UPS-Geschlechtern, besonders in Bezug auf das Sammeln und die Vermarktung von Baobabprodukten. Wir wenden ein exogenes Switching-Regressionsmodell in einem kontrafaktischen Rahmen an. Diese Methode erlaubt uns, Schätzungen über die Kausaleffekte des Geschlechts auf das Sammeln und die Vermarktung von Baobabprodukten anzustellen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass weibliche Baobabmanagerinnen und unverheiratete weibliche Baobabmanagerinnen wahrscheinlicher weniger sammeln und verkaufen als männlichen Baobabmanager und verheiratete weibliche Baobabmanagerinnen. Die empirischen Ergebnissen zeigen, dass die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede auch unter Kontrolle sozioökonomischer Faktoren (z.B. Alter, Bildung, Familienstand) bestehen bleiben. Dementsprechend deuten diese Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass es unbeobachtete Faktoren wie z.B. Normen und Führungsqualitäten gibt, die geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede beeinflussen. In dem zweiten Aufsatz untersuchen wir die Wirkung kollektiven Handelns auf das Wohlergehen der Haushalte von UPS-Sammler:innen. Die Anzahl von Studien über kollektives Handeln und seine Wirkung auf das Wohlergehen von Haushalten in Entwicklungsländern wächst. Jedoch sind die empirischen Ergebnisse und Aussagen gemischt und nicht aussagekräftig. Ein Großteil dieser Wirkungsstudien konzentrieren sich auf Grundnahrungsmittel und hochwertige Nutzpflanzen, mit einem geringem Anteil an Studien über UPS. Dennoch fehlen empirische Befunde und Aussagen über das südliche Afrika, insbesondere Malawi, und in Bezug auf Baobab. Einige Studien über UPS berücksichtigen den Selfselektionsbias nicht. Des Weiteren geben diese Studien keinen Auskunft über die Heterogenität der Wirkungen, insbesondere in Bezug auf das Geschlecht Wir verwenden den inversen wahrscheinlichkeitsgewichteten Regressionsanpassungsschätzer (IPWRA), um die durchschnittlichen und heterogenen Verfahrenseffekte kollektiven Handelns auf Baobab-Einkommen und Ernährungssicherung zu schätzen. Wir stellen fest, dass die Mitgliedschaft in Genossenschaften das Baobab-Einkommen, den Vielfaltswert in der Haushaltsernährung, und den Nahrungsmittelkonsumwert jeweils um 3,57%, 11% und 5,6% erhöht. Die Wirkung der Genossenschaftsmitgliedschaft ist bei männlichen Baobabmanagern höher. Dahingegen weisen Haushalte mit unverheirateten, weiblichen Managerinnen bessere Wirkungen auf das Gemeinwohl auf. Die empirischen Befunde beleuchten daher die Notwendigkeit, kollektives Handeln im unzureichend genutzten Pflanzensektor durch Genossenschaften zu unterstützen, um das Gemeinwohl der Haushalte zu verbessern. In der dritten Aufsatz evaluieren wir die durchschnittlichen Verteilungseffekte der Auswahl von Vermarktungskanälen in Bezug auf das Einkommen und die Ernährungssicherheit von Baobabsammler:innen. Sie beteiligen sich hauptsächlich in drei Vertriebskanälen: Im landwirtschaftlichen Betrieb, in ländlichen Märkten und urbanen Märkten. Wir zeigen, dass die Beteiligung an Vertriebskanälen außerhalb der Landwirtschaft, also Off-Farm Marktkanälen, (ländliche und urbane Märkte) im Verhältnis zu landwirtschaftlichen Vertriebskanälen höhere Baobab-Einkommen und Ernährungssicherheit zur Folge hat. Wir wenden den Quantilbehandlungseffekt an, um zu zeigen, dass der durchschnittliche Behandlungseffekt in der Umstellung von landwirtschaftlichen Vertriebskanal zu Vertriebskanälen außerhalb der Landwirtschaft, also Off-Farm Vertriebskanälen, sich je nach Quantil des Baobab-Einkommens und der Ernährungssicherheit unterscheidet. Die Baobab-Einkommenseffekte von Vertriebskanälen außerhalb der Landwirtschaft, also Off-Farm Marktkanäle, im Vergleich zu landwirtschaftlichen Vertriebskanäle, also Farm-Gate Marktkanälen, sind nur für Baobabsammler:innen im oberen Quantil der Einkommensverteilung positiv. In Bezug auf die Ernährungssicherheit ist der positive prozentuale Effekt für Haushalte mit einem niedrigeren Maß an Ernährungssicherheit höher. Basierend auf den drei Aufsätzen dieser Dissertation, ziehen wir folgende Schlussfolgerungen: Aus dem ersten Aufsatz kommen wir zum dem Schluss, dass es geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede bei der Sammlung und Vermarktung von Baobab gibt. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen auch, dass diese Unterschiede variieren wenn das Geschlecht mit dem Familienstand interagiert. Bemühungen zur Verminderung geschlechtsspezifischer Unterschiede in der Produktion und Vermarktung sollten auf die Befähigung von Frauen / weiblichen Personen sowie auf die zugrundeliegenden Ursachen von Geschlechterungleichheiten ausgerichtet sein. Aus dem zweiten Aufsatz schlussfolgern wir, dass kollektives Handeln zur Verbesserung der Einkommen und Ernährungssicherheit von Baobabsammler:innen beitragen kann. Die wichtigste Auswirkung für die Politikausrichtung ist, dass Bündnisse zwischen den Akteuren im UPS-Sektor ein wichtiges Instrument zur Verbesserung des Gemeinwohls der Haushalte von UPS-Sammler:innen sind. Wir betonen jedoch, dass dieser positive Effekt ungleichmäßig auf alle Genossenschaftsmitglieder verteilt ist. Wiederum kommen wir aus dem dritten Aufsatz zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass die Beteiligung an Vertriebskanäle außerhalb der landwirtschaftlichen Marktkanäle, also Off-Farm Marktkanälen, im Verhältnis zu landwirschaftlichen Vertriebskanälen, also Farm-Gate Marktkanälen, zu einem verbesserten Baobab-Einkommen und einer besseren Ernährungssicherheit unter den Baobabsammler:innen beiträgt. Daher sollte der Zugang zu Verkaufsstellen außerhalb der Landwirtschaft für Baobabsammler:innen verbessert werden. / The persistence of poverty and food and nutrition insecurity in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), highlights the need for a paradigm shift in food systems that focuses on diversification into other food chains such as underutilised plant species (UPS). These crops have the potential to provide SSA with a productive, nutrition-sensitive, and resilient food system. Recent evidence concludes that UPS contribute to food security by supplementing staples, acting as a buffer in time of shortages, and increasing diet quality, and can be viewed as a lever towards poverty alleviation. Despite the significance of UPS, previous literature has extensively focussed on food and cash crops. This dissertation contributes to understanding of the aspects of gender, collective action and market channel choices among collectors of UPS. It is composed of three essays that contribute to the literature on UPS in different ways. All the three essays are based on a household survey of 864 baobab (an example of UPS) collectors in Malawi in the year 2021. The first essay analyses the gender gaps in the collection and marketing of baobab. In particular, I evaluate the differences in the quantity of baobab collected between male baobab managers (MBMs) and female baobab managers (FBMs). We further extend our analysis and also evaluate differences among FBMs relative to their marital status (i.e. married FBMs vs unmarried FBMs). The literature on gender and agriculture has mainly focused on gender gaps in agricultural productivity and technology adoption, especially for major crops in Africa. However, there is limited empirical evidence on gender gaps in UPS, especially in terms of collection and marketing. We employ an exogenous switching regression model in a counterfactual framework, as this method allows us to estimate the causal effects of gender in the collection and marketing of baobab products. We find that female baobab managers and unmarried female managers are more likely to collect and sell less than male baobab managers and married female managers, respectively. The results demonstrate that the gender gap persists even after controlling for observed socio economic factors (for example, age, education, marital status). These findings mean that there are unobserved factors such as norms and managerial ability that influence the gender gaps. In the second essay, we examine the impact of collective action on household welfare of collectors of UPS. The number of impact studies on collective action and their effect on household welfare in developing countries is growing, yet the findings are mixed and the evidence is inconclusive. Most of these impact studies focus on staple and high-value crops with a few studies on UPS. However, there is no empirical evidence from Southern Africa, particularly Malawi and specific to baobab. In the case of UPS, some studies fail to account for self-selection bias. Further, these studies do not provide an account of heterogeneity in impacts, particularly with respect to gender. We use the Inverse Probability Weight Regression Adjustment estimator (IPWRA) to estimate average and heterogeneous treatment effects of collective action on baobab income and food security. We find that the cooperative membership increases baobab income, household dietary diversity score, and food consumption score by 3.57%, 11% and 5.6%, respectively. However, the impact of cooperative membership was higher in male baobab managers. Households with unmarried female managers have better welfare outcomes. The results, therefore, highlight the need to promote collective action through cooperatives in the underutilised crop sector to enhance household welfare. In the third essay, we evaluate the average and distributional effects of market channel choices on income and food security of baobab collectors. Baobab collectors mainly participate in three market channels; farmgate, rural market, and urban market. We show that participation in off-farm market channels (rural and urban market) relative to farmgate, was associated with increases in baobab income and food security. We use quantile treatment effect to show that the average treatment effect of moving from farm gate market channels to off-farm market channels differed across quantiles of baobab income and food security. For baobab income, the effects of the off-farm market channels compared to the farm gate market are positive only for baobab collectors in the upper quantile of the income distribution. In terms of food security, the positive percentage effect is higher for households with low levels of food security. Based on the three essays in this dissertation, we draw the following conclusions. From the first essay we conclude that there are gender gaps in the collection and marketing of baobab. The results also confirm that these gaps vary as gender interacts with marital status. Efforts to reduce gender differences in production and marketing should focus on empowering women and also addressing the underlying causes of gender inequality. From the second essay, we conclude that collective action can contribute to better incomes and food security among baobab collectors. The important policy implication is that organization among actors in the UPS sector is a major mechanism of improving household welfare of collectors of UPS. But we stress that this positive effect is not distributed uniformly across all cooperative members. From the third essay, we conclude that participation in off-farm market channels relative to farmgate contributes to improved baobab income and food security among baobab collectors. Hence baobab collectors’ access to off-farm selling outlets should be enhanced.

High-value, lootable natural resources drive, finance and sustain armed conflicts around the world. At the same time, these resources are crucial for livelihoods through artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in the very same contexts. Yet, little is known regarding how these resources should be managed in the wake of conflict to contribute to peacebuilding and prevent conflict recurrence. Drawing on the environmental peacebuilding and informal economies literature, this study argues that ASM formalization improves the quality and sustainability of livelihoods by empowering ASM communities. Using the method of structured focused comparison, the hypothesis is tested on two mining municipalities in Antioquia, Colombia. Data was gathered through interviews and secondary sources. The main finding is that while ASM formalization under certain conditions can contributeto sustainable livelihoods, this is only partly through community empowerment. Furthermore, the practice remains inaccessible to most artisanal and small-scale miners and can make them dependent on the goodwill of large-scale multinational mining companies. Thereby it ends up marginalizing many of the people it is meant to benefit.

This study examines the role of livelihood diversification in promoting household food security with particular reference to Hurungwe District in Zimbabwe. This focuses on assessing the contribution and impact of predominant livelihood diversification strategies in study area. The study employed qualitative methods of research entailing focus group discussions, observation, key informant interviews and literature review as methods of data collection. The study revealed that limited access to credit, skills development, markets and transport infrastructure weaken the efficacy of nonfarm livelihoods to improve food security. Key recommendations are that government, NGOs and communities must work in tandem to increase livelihood options for food insecure communities. Suggested strategies include increasing access to micro finance, vocational skills training and other support services paying attention to gender considerations. Areas requiring further investigation which emanated from the study include the impact of the shift to tobacco farming and how biotechnology has affected smallholder farmers. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

Tourism has been increasingly used for, and directly linked with, rural poverty reduction in developing countries. In recent years, it has, however, been criticised by rural developers for its lack of concern for the rural poor and for being too increasingly focused on tourism specifically. Instead, it is argued that these inadequacies can be addressed by the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA), a widely used organising framework for facilitating poverty reduction. But the application, and to an extent the principles, of the SLA may not fully fit the tourism situation, and vice versa. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding about the relationship between the SLA and tourism needs to be explored. This thesis incorporates a review of the literature on rural and tourism development. Gaps between the SLA and tourism are identified. It is suggested that the SLA cannot fully address the issues when tourism is used as a rural livelihood strategy. New knowledge and thinking are needed. Based on the literature review, a Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism (SLFT) is proposed as a guiding tool in rural development when tourism is a livelihood strategy. For testing the applicability of the SLFT, a mixed methodology and case study research method was adopted. Three mountainous rural villages, respectively at involvement, development and rejuvenation Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) stages, in central China, were examined. Before implementation of the case study, SLFT indicators were firstly developed. Findings show that the SLFT provides an overall organising framework for the consideration of rural development using tourism as a livelihood strategy at all stages of TALC. Revisiting the SLFT, it is argued that an additional attraction capital should be added to the SLFT. Attraction capital includes natural, cultural, and other attractions, and is defined as all resources used to attract tourist arrivals from which local people benefit for better livelihood objectives. Based on the findings, the SLFT and its key elements are revised to offer a more complete insight and understanding of a tourism livelihood system for the purpose of tourism planning and management. Particular attention is drawn to the newly introduced concept of institutional capital, mainly evidenced in community participation practice. Appropriate institutional policies and practices can ensure local people share the benefits from tourism. The implication of a participatory approach is extended to access to tourist markets, benefit sharing, as well as participation in the decision-making. This research indicates that improvement of livelihood assets by tourism enhances local people’s resilience to vulnerability contexts. Institutional arrangements play an important role in mediating this process as well as the impact of vulnerability contexts through the planning portfolio (e.g., planning, policy-making, and legislation). Future research is suggested to evaluate and improve the SLFT’s applicability in multiple development contexts, and to explore ways of further developing SLFT indicators as a means for evaluating the usefulness of the SLFT.

PhDGEO / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences / See the attached abstract below

This study examines the role of livelihood diversification in promoting household food security with particular reference to Hurungwe District in Zimbabwe. This focuses on assessing the contribution and impact of predominant livelihood diversification strategies in study area. The study employed qualitative methods of research entailing focus group discussions, observation, key informant interviews and literature review as methods of data collection. The study revealed that limited access to credit, skills development, markets and transport infrastructure weaken the efficacy of nonfarm livelihoods to improve food security. Key recommendations are that government, NGOs and communities must work in tandem to increase livelihood options for food insecure communities. Suggested strategies include increasing access to micro finance, vocational skills training and other support services paying attention to gender considerations. Areas requiring further investigation which emanated from the study include the impact of the shift to tobacco farming and how biotechnology has affected smallholder farmers. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

The study investigates the extent of distributional impacts of labour-intensive road projects using a geographical approach. The aim is to evaluate infrastructural effectiveness. The central premise is that the interface between road investment and economic development has broad implications that are beyond transportation’s basic purpose of providing access and mobility. Communities are motivated by the outcomes and impacts of road infrastructure development in improving the productiveness of the economy, in line with socio-economic development and other multiplying effects. The objective was to describe the nature and delivery mechanisms of labourintensive road projects, evaluate the impact thereof on the project participants and their communities and explore the constraints and challenges experienced by these initiatives. The impact of the Gundo Lashu programme was measured, based on an assessment of programme outputs, outcomes and impacts, to determine whether the project had the desired effects on individual participants and their households. A matched control case study design, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was adopted. The study found that the Gundo Lashu programme had achieved the expected outputs in terms of the total number of jobs created, total road length constructed and maintained. However, the communities’ socioeconomic outcomes and the impacts of the programme on poverty and sustainable livelihoods were mixed. These conclusions re-affirm the notion that the development of rural road infrastructure alone by labour-intensive construction methods, is not sufficient in tackling poverty. While government is focusing on addressing unemployment and skills development through labourintensive road construction programmes, there is a need to ensure proper integration of government services to make a significant impact. Huge deficiencies exist in the inter-linkages between the programme planning process and the municipal planning system and that there are a number of management and planning, structural and functional, human resources and funding barriers to proper planning, implementation and monitoring of projects within the Gundo Lashu programme. Various challenges and barriers emanates from lack of coordination, political interferences and lack of strategic direction. Key recommendations include comprehensive road planning, better project targeting mechanisms, development of guidelines for future maintenance, skills training and capacity development, and resultsbased monitoring. / Geography / D. Phil. (Geography)