A simple chemical method to synthesize PMAA coated maghemite nanoparticles is described. Monomer methacrylic acid molecules were absorbed onto the synthesized ferrimagnetic nanoparticles followed by polymerization. The carboxylic group of PMAA coating allowed surface immobilization of foreign molecules. An anti-cancer drug was successfully adsorbed onto the PMAA coated maghemite nanoparticles for potential targeted drug delivery. / Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA)

Thesis supervisor: Michelle M. Scherer. Includes bibliographic references (p. 198-215).

Synthetic nanomagnetite has been suggested as a potential reactant for the in-situ treatment of contaminated groundwater. Although the application of nanomagnetite for environmental remediation is promising, a full understanding of its reactivity has been deterred by the propensity of the nanoparticles to aggregate and form clusters. To characterize the factors responsible for this aggregation behavior, we determined the magnetic properties of magnetite using a superconducting quantum interference device (SQuID). Importantly, because magnetite readily reacts with O2 to produce maghemite, we analyzed the effect of oxidation on its magnetic properties. We observed that oxidation caused a decrease in the saturation magnetization and the anisotrophic barrier of magnetite resulting in less significant magnetic interactions between particles. Consequently, a decrease in the aggregation of magnetite clusters and a potential increase in stability are expected after oxidation. To support these findings, an extended series of experiments to measure the aggregation and the sedimentation of clusters of unoxidized and oxidized magnetite nanoparticles were conducted. Although the individual particle diameter remained constant after oxidation, the cluster size and the aggregation and sedimentation kinetics of magnetite were determined to be different. Oxidized samples of magnetite tended to have lower aggregation rates and were more resistant to sedimentation. These findings can be used to have a better understanding of the overall fate, transport, and reactivity of nanomagnetite, and to gain new insights on its role as a remediation agent in the subsurface environment. / Ph. D.

Magnetite, an iron oxide, is a possible candidate for in situ remediation of contaminated groundwater systems due to its oxidation/reduction potential for reduction of contaminants such as carbon tetrachloride. Little characterization and analysis has been done to describe the kinetics of magnetite transformation during oxidation. This work focuses on monitoring the concentrations of magnetite and one of its oxidation transformation products, maghemite, by the use of UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy. As oxidation proceeded at a constant specific temperature, the concentration of magnetite decreases, which was indicated by a decrease in absorption in the NIR-region of the spectrum. As magnetite concentrations decreased, the concentration of maghemite increased, which was indicated by an increase in absorption in the UV-region. The temperature at which the suspensions of magnetite and maghemite were measured was of great importance for complete understanding of the magnetite transformation as seen by UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy analysis. Higher measurement temperatures produced higher absorptivities of FeII-FeIII electron hopping transitions, while decreasing the absorptivity of FeIII-FeIII in the NIR and UV-regions respectively. Lower temperatures produced the opposite effects on the iron oxides' transitions. Higher temperature increased the rate of oxidation. / Master of Science

Submitted by Jaqueline Silva (jtas29@gmail.com) on 2014-09-15T19:44:43Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Chelry Fernanda Alves de Jesus.pdf: 3412626 bytes, checksum: 196a769a0f857f15c408d233116a895b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Jaqueline Silva (jtas29@gmail.com) on 2014-09-15T19:45:11Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Chelry Fernanda Alves de Jesus.pdf: 3412626 bytes, checksum: 196a769a0f857f15c408d233116a895b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-09-15T19:45:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Chelry Fernanda Alves de Jesus.pdf: 3412626 bytes, checksum: 196a769a0f857f15c408d233116a895b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-04-04 / In this study, maghemite nanoparticles associated to dextran were synthesized (crystallites with average diameters of 5.6 and 5.3 nm) from the precipitation of iron salts in an alkaline medium in the presence of dextran of molecular weights of 250 kDa and 75 kDa. Aqueous colloidal dispersions of maghemite/dextran reacted with different amounts of epichlorohydrin aiming at the crosslinking of dextran. The characteristics of the samples were evaluated by X-ray diffraction, high resolution electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, iron determination, hydrodynamic diameter and zeta potential. One of the maghemite/dextran samples was treated with an ammonium hydroxide solution for different times, seeking the functionalization of dextran with NH2 groups, whose content was determined by potentiometric titration. The maghemite/dextran-NH2 system was conjugated to rhodamine B fluorophore (RodB) under different reaction conditions, being the content of RodB determined by absorption spectrophotometry in the visible region. Photoluminescent characteristics of maghemite/dextran-RodB systems were evaluated by fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence spectrometry and flow cytometry. The results of the analyses and experiments showed that the molecular mass and the crosslinking of dextran did not influence significantly the characteristics of the colloidal systems, since the hydrodynamic diameter values were in the range of 110 and 138 nm and zeta potential was of -4.54 the -10.76 mV. However, the profile of the thermogravimetric curves of the solids was influenced by the crosslinking of dextran, as well as by the presence of the polymer not associated to the nanoparticles. The treatment with ammonia was proved efficient, increasing the number of NH2 groups per particle from 45 to 71. The conjugation of RodB to the maghemite/dextran-NH2 system was more efficient at a pH of 8.5, using a greater amount of carbodiimide and N-hydroxysuccinimide. The maghemite/dextran-RodB system presented different photoluminescent properties according to the content of NH2 groups with in the sample used in the conjugation reaction. The sample treated with the ammonia solution, containing 71 NH2-groups/particle, although it presented less amount of conjugated RodB (2.2 RodB/particle) showed greater fluorescence intensity than the sample showing the highest amount of RodB (2.8 Rod/particle), but that was not treated with ammonia (45-NH2/particle). This result was interpreted considering that the system treated with ammonia favored the RodB conjugation via covalent bond, while the untreated system favored the formation of aggregates of RodB via electrostatic interactions. / Neste trabalho, foram sintetizadas nanopartículas de maghemita (cristalitos com diâmetros médios de 5,6 e 5,3 nm) associadas à dextrana a partir da precipitação de sais de ferro em meio alcalino na presença de dextrana de massas moleculares de 250 kDa e 75 kDa. As dispersões coloidais aquosas de maghemita/dextrana reagiram com diferentes quantidades de epicloridrina visando à reticulação da dextrana. As características das amostras obtidas foram avaliadas por difração de raios-x, microscopia eletrônica de alta resolução, espectroscopia no infravermelho, análises termogravimétricas e medidas de teor de ferro, diâmetro hidrodinâmico e potencial zeta. Uma das amostras de maghemita/dextrana foi tratada com solução de hidróxido de amônio por diferentes tempos, visando à funcionalização da dextrana com grupos -NH2, cujo teor foi determinado por titulação potenciométrica. O sistema maghemita/dextrana-NH2 foi conjugado ao fluoróforo rodamina B (RodB) em diferentes condições reacionais, sendo o teor de RodB determinado por espectrofotometria de absorção na região do visível. As características fotoluminescentes dos sistemas maghemita/dextrana-RodB foram avaliadas por microscopia de fluorescência, espectrometria de fluorescência e citometria de fluxo. Os resultados das análises e experimentos mostraram que a massa molecular e a reticulação da dextrana não influenciaram, significativamente, nas características dos sistemas coloidais, já que os valores de diâmetro hidrodinâmico ficaram na faixa de 110 a 138 nm e os de potencial zeta de -4,54 a -10,76 mV. Entretanto, o perfil das curvas termogravimétricas dos sólidos foi influenciado pela reticulação da dextrana, assim como pela presença de polímero não associado às nanopartículas. O tratamento com amônia mostrou-se eficiente, incrementando o número de grupos -NH2 por partícula de 45 para 71. A conjugação da RodB ao sistema maghemita/dextrana-NH2 foi mais eficiente em pH 8,5, empregando-se maior quantidade de carbodiimida e N-hidroxisuccinimida. O sistema maghemita/dextrana-RodB apresentou propriedades fotoluminescentes distintas em função do teor de grupos –NH2 superficiais na amostra empregada na reação de conjugação. A amostra tratada com solução de amônia, contendo 71 grupos NH2/partícula, embora tenha apresentado menor quantidade de RodB conjugada (2,2 RodB/partícula) mostrou maior intensidade de fluorescência do que a amostra com maior quantidade de RodB (2,8 Rod/partícula), mas que não foi tratada com amônia (45 –NH2/partícula). Este resultado foi interpretado considerando-se que o sistema tratado com amônia favoreceu a conjugação de RodB via ligação covalente, enquanto que o sistema não tratado favoreceu a formação de agregados de RodB via interações eletrostáticas.

Magnetite (Fe3O4) is a commonly found in the environment and can form via several pathways, including biotic and abiotic reduction of Fe3+ oxides and the oxidation of Fe2+ and Fe0. Despite extensive research, the redox behavior of magnetite is poorly understood. In previous work, the extent and kinetics of contaminant reduction by magnetite varied by several orders of magnitude between studies, two fundamentally different models are used to explain magnetite oxidation (i.e., core-shell diffusion and redox-driven), and reported reduction potentials vary by almost 1 V. In other fields of science (e.g., physics), magnetite stoichiometry (x = Fe2+/Fe3+) is a commonly measured property, however, in environmental studies, the stoichiometry is rarely measured. The stoichiometry of magnetite can range from 0.5 (stoichiometric) to 0 (completely oxidized), with intermediate values (0 < x < 0.5) referred to as nonstoichiometric or partially oxidized magnetite. To determine the relationship between magnetite stoichiometry and contaminant fate, the reduction rates of three substituted nitrobenzenes (ArNO2) were measured. The kinetic rates varied over five orders of magnitude as the particle stoichiometry increased from x = 0.31 to 0.50. Apparent 15N kinetic isotope effects (15N-AKIE) values for ArNO2 were greater than unity for all magnetite stoichiometries investigated, and indicated that mass transfer processes are not controlling the reaction rate. To determine if the reaction kinetics were redox-driven, magnetite open circuit potentials (EOCP) were measured. EOCP values were linearly related to the stoichiometry, with more stoichiometric magnetite having a lower potential, in good agreement with redox-driven models. The reaction of aqueous Fe2+ and magnetite was investigated. Similar to previous findings for other Fe3+ oxides, the formation of a stable sorbed Fe2+ species was not observed; instead, the sorbed Fe2+ underwent interfacial electron transfer to form a partially oxidized magnetite phase, which was accompanied by reduction of the underlying magnetite. The lack of a stable sorbed Fe2+ species on magnetite indicated that the traditional surface complexation model was incorrect; instead, the uptake of Fe2+ by magnetite appeared to be limited by the whole particle (i.e., the sorbed and underlying phases combined) reaching a stoichiometry of 0.5.

In this study, maghemite (&amp / #947 / -Fe2O3) thin films were prepared by chemical solution deposition on glass and quartz substrates. The solution was prepared by using 0.3 M iron (III) nitrate [Fe(NO3)3 - 9H2O] as precursor and dissolved in a mixture of 2-methoxyethanol and acetylacetone in a molar ratio of 20:2, by stirring the solution at RT for 2 hours. Substrates were prepared by either piranha etching method or ultrasonic cleaning method. The solution was spin coated on glass and quartz substrates at 1400 and 4000 rpm for 1 minute. The resultant film thickness was found as 65 and 80 nm by SEM. Viscosity of the main solution was found to be approximately as 0.0035 Pa.s by viscosity measurement. TGA/DTA analyses showed that, to produce maghemite thin film, heat treatment should be done between 330 &deg / C and 440 &deg / C. Homogeneous and crack free maghemite thin films were observed by Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) methods. TEM studies verified maghemite thin film formation by using electron diffraction and SAED (selected area electron diffraction) method. Thin film characteristics were evaluated by changing the experimental parameters which are annealing temperature, annealing time and thickness of the films using XRD (x-ray diffraction) method. Optical band gap of maghemite thin films were found as approximately 2.64 eV by UV-VIS Spectrophotometer. Magnetic properties of maghemite thin films were also examined by VSM (vibrating sample magnetometer).

The aim of this study is to produce maghemite nanoparticles by using different production methods. To achieve this purpose Sol-Gel Processing and Microwave Synthesis methods were employed. Suitable characterization techniques like XRD, TEM, BET, and VSM were performed to control the properties of the synthesized particles whether they are suitable for certain applications. In the sol-gel part of the study two different routes were employed to obtain maghemite nanoparticles. In the first route TEOS (tetraethoxysilane) was used as the precursor. Approximate particle sizes of these samples lie between 12.0-23.4 nm. From the magnetization measurements saturation magnetization (Ms) values are obtained between 4-12 emu/g. In the second route of the sol-gel method ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol were used as starting materials. Ms value was found as 28 emu/g for the ethylene glycol sample as the highest magnetization value due to having the highest amount of maghemite phase. The superparamagnetic behavior observed in these samples was tried to explain by curve fitting. Langevin and tangent hyperbolic functions were used to fit the magnetization curves. From the XRD study particle sizes of these samples lie in the 4.0-48.5 nm range and these results are consistent with the size distributions obtained from the TEM study. In the last part of the study microwave method was used to produce maghemite nanoparticles. Most of the samples contain maghemite and hematite phases together and particle sizes were between 3-30 nm. Ms values of these microwave samples were lower than that of the sol-gel samples with a value about 3.0 emu/g. Keywords: Maghemite, nanoparticle, superparamagnetism, sol-gel, microwave

Esta dissertação teve como objetivo, a preparação de hidrogéis à base de alginato contendo argila e material magnético em sua estrutura. Foram analisadas as modificações nas características físico-químicas dos hidrogéis preparados com diferentes reticulantes (CaCl2 e FeCl3) e diferentes concentrações de material magnético (1 e 3 % m/m) e argila (1, 5 e 10 %). Após isso, os hidrogéis foram avaliados quanto à capacidade de remoção de íons Cu2+ e Zn2+ de soluções aquosas. As amostras foram caracterizadas quanto à composição química por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (FTIR), quanto à morfologia por microscopia óptica e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e quanto às propriedades magnéticas por magnetometria de amostra vibrante (VSM). Através da técnica de difratometria de raios-X (XRD), foi possível verificar a natureza do material magnético e a dispersão da argila nos hidrogéis. A estabilidade térmica das amostras foi analisada por análise termogravimétrica (TGA). Os resultados mostraram que tanto a argila como o material magnético ficaram bem dispersos nas amostras. De forma geral, foram preparados hidrogéis com morfologia esférica, sendo que os hidrogéis de alginato de cálcio tenderam a apresentar maior resistência térmica do que os hidrogéis de alginato de ferro. Todas as amostras magnéticas apresentaram comportamento superparamagnético, porém as amostras de alginato de ferro mostraram-se quebradiças após o intumescimento em água. O tempo médio de equilíbrio de intumescimento foi de 240 minutos. Os resultados de cinética de adsorção mostraram que os hidrogéis de alginato de cálcio preparados nas condições avaliadas nesta Dissertação foram eficientes na remoção dos íons Cu2+ e Zn2+, sendo que o cobre apresentou maior afinidade pelo hidrogel do que o zinco / The aim of this Dissertation was study the preparation of hydrogels based on alginate containing clay and magnetic material in its structure. The modifications on the physicochemical characteristics of hydrogels prepared with different crosslinking (CaCl2 and FeCl3), different concentrations of magnetic material (1 and 3 % w/w), and clay (1, 5 and 10 % w/w) were analyzed. After that, the removal capacity of Cu2+ and Zn2+ from aqueous solutions was evaluated. The samples were characterized according their chemical composition by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and optical microscopy, magnetic properties by vibrating sample magnetization (VSM). Through the X-rays diffraction (XRD) it was possible to ascertain the nature of the magnetic material and the clays dispersion into hydrogels. The thermal stability of the samples was analyzed by thermogravimetry analysis (TGA). The results showed that both clay and magnetic material were well dispersed in the samples. Spherical hydrogels were prepared and the calcium alginate hydrogels had tended to present higher thermal resistance than the iron alginate hydrogels. All the magnetic samples showed superparamagnetic behavior; however iron alginate samples had proved be brittle after swelling in water. The equilibrium time of swelling was 240 minutes. The adsorption kinetics results showed that calcium alginate hydrogels prepared under the conditions evaluated in this work were efficient in the removal of Cu2+ and Zn2+, and copper showed higher affinity than zinc for the hydrogel

Esta dissertação teve como objetivo, a preparação de hidrogéis à base de alginato contendo argila e material magnético em sua estrutura. Foram analisadas as modificações nas características físico-químicas dos hidrogéis preparados com diferentes reticulantes (CaCl2 e FeCl3) e diferentes concentrações de material magnético (1 e 3 % m/m) e argila (1, 5 e 10 %). Após isso, os hidrogéis foram avaliados quanto à capacidade de remoção de íons Cu2+ e Zn2+ de soluções aquosas. As amostras foram caracterizadas quanto à composição química por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (FTIR), quanto à morfologia por microscopia óptica e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e quanto às propriedades magnéticas por magnetometria de amostra vibrante (VSM). Através da técnica de difratometria de raios-X (XRD), foi possível verificar a natureza do material magnético e a dispersão da argila nos hidrogéis. A estabilidade térmica das amostras foi analisada por análise termogravimétrica (TGA). Os resultados mostraram que tanto a argila como o material magnético ficaram bem dispersos nas amostras. De forma geral, foram preparados hidrogéis com morfologia esférica, sendo que os hidrogéis de alginato de cálcio tenderam a apresentar maior resistência térmica do que os hidrogéis de alginato de ferro. Todas as amostras magnéticas apresentaram comportamento superparamagnético, porém as amostras de alginato de ferro mostraram-se quebradiças após o intumescimento em água. O tempo médio de equilíbrio de intumescimento foi de 240 minutos. Os resultados de cinética de adsorção mostraram que os hidrogéis de alginato de cálcio preparados nas condições avaliadas nesta Dissertação foram eficientes na remoção dos íons Cu2+ e Zn2+, sendo que o cobre apresentou maior afinidade pelo hidrogel do que o zinco / The aim of this Dissertation was study the preparation of hydrogels based on alginate containing clay and magnetic material in its structure. The modifications on the physicochemical characteristics of hydrogels prepared with different crosslinking (CaCl2 and FeCl3), different concentrations of magnetic material (1 and 3 % w/w), and clay (1, 5 and 10 % w/w) were analyzed. After that, the removal capacity of Cu2+ and Zn2+ from aqueous solutions was evaluated. The samples were characterized according their chemical composition by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), morphology by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and optical microscopy, magnetic properties by vibrating sample magnetization (VSM). Through the X-rays diffraction (XRD) it was possible to ascertain the nature of the magnetic material and the clays dispersion into hydrogels. The thermal stability of the samples was analyzed by thermogravimetry analysis (TGA). The results showed that both clay and magnetic material were well dispersed in the samples. Spherical hydrogels were prepared and the calcium alginate hydrogels had tended to present higher thermal resistance than the iron alginate hydrogels. All the magnetic samples showed superparamagnetic behavior; however iron alginate samples had proved be brittle after swelling in water. The equilibrium time of swelling was 240 minutes. The adsorption kinetics results showed that calcium alginate hydrogels prepared under the conditions evaluated in this work were efficient in the removal of Cu2+ and Zn2+, and copper showed higher affinity than zinc for the hydrogel