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Ensaios sobre o custo marginal do financiamento público no BrasilLanzer, Bruno Nogueira January 2011 (has links)
O tema principal dos três ensaios desta dissertação é o Custo Marginal do Financiamento Público (MCF) no Brasil. A análise do (MCF) é de grande importância para a economia, uma vez que pode prover uma medida da perda marginal no bem estar incorrida pela sociedade, resultante da elevação adicional nos tributos. No primeiro ensaio, realizamos estimativas do MCF associado aos principais tributos existentes na economia brasileira através de um modelo estático de equilíbrio geral computável (CGE). Nossas estimativas para o MCF médio na economia brasileira se situam entre 1,167 e 1,173. Considerando apenas os efeitos de eficiência alocativa, os resultados apontam que futuras reformas tributárias para o Brasil devem levar em conta modificações na base da tributação, passando de capital e trabalho para o consumo (dados os menores MCF´s associados). Adicionalmente, as estimativas de MCF associadas à economia informal são menores que a unidade, indicando que um uma maior formalização pode auxiliar na redução do MCF associado aos tributos da economia formal. Finalmente, expandindo o conceito de MCF para considerar preocupações dos agentes com relação à equidade podem alterar sensivelmente os resultados. Nosso segundo trabalho faz uma aplicação do MCF para estimar o Custo Marginal de Financiamento via Dívida Pública ( ) para o Brasil, através de duas abordagens propostas por Dahlby (2006, 2008). Os resultados indicam que o é superior à unidade para ambas as medidas, de modo que a redução de R$ 1,00 da dívida pública implicaria em uma melhoria de bem estar superior a R$ 1,00 para a economia brasileira. Assim sendo, muito embora a trajetória declinante da dívida líquida do setor público brasileiro ao longo da última década e da melhora em alguns indicadores relacionados ao endividamento (como maior participação de títulos prefixados e associados aos índices de preços na dívida mobiliária federal e maior prazo médio relacionado aos títulos prefixados), uma apreciação mais favorável merece cautela. Afora as perdas adicionais de peso morto relacionadas a elevações na dívida, o patamar ainda elevado da dívida interna e a situação pouco contributiva da política fiscal para reduções na mesma, merecem ser analisadas com mais cautela. No terceiro e último ensaio, estendemos, em parte, a análise de Siqueira, Nogueira, Souza e Carvalho (2010), incluindo outras distorções existentes na economia (que podem não decorrer unicamente dos tributos, mas são afetadas por estes) no cálculo do custo marginal social da tributação (SMCF) para o cigarro e para as bebidas alcoólicas. Para tanto, utilizamos uma abordagem proposta por Dahlby (2006) que expande o conceito de MCF para incluir não só as ponderações com relação à equidade, mas também o efeito de externalidades, vícios (problemas de autocontrole) e contrabando. Nossos resultados apontam que incluir as distorções propostas nas mensurações do MCF pode alterar sensivelmente a percepção sobre a taxação incidente no cigarro e sobre as bebidas alcoólicas. / The main theme of the three essays of this dissertation is the Marginal Cost of Public Funds (MCF) in Brazil. The analysis of MCF is of great importance in economics, since it can provide a measure of the marginal welfare loss incurred by the households resulting from high marginal taxes. In our first paper we estimate the MCF associated with major existing taxes in the Brazilian economy through a Static Computable General Equilibrium Model (CGE). Our estimates for the average MCF in the Brazilian economy are between 1,167 e 1,173. Considering only efficiency effects, the results show that future tax reforms in Brazil should take into account changes in the tax base from capital and labor to consumption (given the smaller associated MCF). Additionally, estimates of MCF associated with informal economy are smaller than unity, indicating that greater formalization can help reduce the MCF associated to the tax rates in the formal economy. Finally, expanding the concept of MCF to consider equity concerns in agent preferences can significantly alter the results. Our second essay makes an application of the MCF to estimate the Marginal Cost of Public Funds from Public Sector Borrowing ( ) for Brazil, through two approaches proposed by Dahlby (2006, 2008). The results show that the is above unity in both measures, so that a reduction of R$ 1,00 of debt imply a welfare improvement over R$ 1,00 for the Brazilian economy. Thus, although the downward trend in net debt f the Brazilian public sector over the last decade and the improvement in some indicators related to the debt (such as greater participation of fixed rate bonds and others associated with prices index in the federal debt and higher average maturity connected with fixed rate bonds), a more favorable appreciation deserves prudence. Apart from the additional dead-weight losses related to increases in debt, the still high level of the internal debt and the not favorable situation of fiscal policy should be analyzed more carefully. In the third and last essay of this work we extend, in part, the analysis of Siqueira, Nogueira, Souza e Carvalho (2010), including other distortions in the economy (which may not result solely from taxes, but are affected by them) in calculating the social marginal cost of public funds (SMCF) for the cigarette and alcohol. For this purpose, we use an approach proposed by Dahlby (2006) that expands the concept of MCF to include not only equity concerns, but also the effect of externalities, addictions, and smuggling. Our results indicate that inclusion of the distortion measurement proposed in the MCF can significantly change the view from cigarette and alcoholic beverages taxation.
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Ensaios sobre o custo marginal do financiamento público no BrasilLanzer, Bruno Nogueira January 2011 (has links)
O tema principal dos três ensaios desta dissertação é o Custo Marginal do Financiamento Público (MCF) no Brasil. A análise do (MCF) é de grande importância para a economia, uma vez que pode prover uma medida da perda marginal no bem estar incorrida pela sociedade, resultante da elevação adicional nos tributos. No primeiro ensaio, realizamos estimativas do MCF associado aos principais tributos existentes na economia brasileira através de um modelo estático de equilíbrio geral computável (CGE). Nossas estimativas para o MCF médio na economia brasileira se situam entre 1,167 e 1,173. Considerando apenas os efeitos de eficiência alocativa, os resultados apontam que futuras reformas tributárias para o Brasil devem levar em conta modificações na base da tributação, passando de capital e trabalho para o consumo (dados os menores MCF´s associados). Adicionalmente, as estimativas de MCF associadas à economia informal são menores que a unidade, indicando que um uma maior formalização pode auxiliar na redução do MCF associado aos tributos da economia formal. Finalmente, expandindo o conceito de MCF para considerar preocupações dos agentes com relação à equidade podem alterar sensivelmente os resultados. Nosso segundo trabalho faz uma aplicação do MCF para estimar o Custo Marginal de Financiamento via Dívida Pública ( ) para o Brasil, através de duas abordagens propostas por Dahlby (2006, 2008). Os resultados indicam que o é superior à unidade para ambas as medidas, de modo que a redução de R$ 1,00 da dívida pública implicaria em uma melhoria de bem estar superior a R$ 1,00 para a economia brasileira. Assim sendo, muito embora a trajetória declinante da dívida líquida do setor público brasileiro ao longo da última década e da melhora em alguns indicadores relacionados ao endividamento (como maior participação de títulos prefixados e associados aos índices de preços na dívida mobiliária federal e maior prazo médio relacionado aos títulos prefixados), uma apreciação mais favorável merece cautela. Afora as perdas adicionais de peso morto relacionadas a elevações na dívida, o patamar ainda elevado da dívida interna e a situação pouco contributiva da política fiscal para reduções na mesma, merecem ser analisadas com mais cautela. No terceiro e último ensaio, estendemos, em parte, a análise de Siqueira, Nogueira, Souza e Carvalho (2010), incluindo outras distorções existentes na economia (que podem não decorrer unicamente dos tributos, mas são afetadas por estes) no cálculo do custo marginal social da tributação (SMCF) para o cigarro e para as bebidas alcoólicas. Para tanto, utilizamos uma abordagem proposta por Dahlby (2006) que expande o conceito de MCF para incluir não só as ponderações com relação à equidade, mas também o efeito de externalidades, vícios (problemas de autocontrole) e contrabando. Nossos resultados apontam que incluir as distorções propostas nas mensurações do MCF pode alterar sensivelmente a percepção sobre a taxação incidente no cigarro e sobre as bebidas alcoólicas. / The main theme of the three essays of this dissertation is the Marginal Cost of Public Funds (MCF) in Brazil. The analysis of MCF is of great importance in economics, since it can provide a measure of the marginal welfare loss incurred by the households resulting from high marginal taxes. In our first paper we estimate the MCF associated with major existing taxes in the Brazilian economy through a Static Computable General Equilibrium Model (CGE). Our estimates for the average MCF in the Brazilian economy are between 1,167 e 1,173. Considering only efficiency effects, the results show that future tax reforms in Brazil should take into account changes in the tax base from capital and labor to consumption (given the smaller associated MCF). Additionally, estimates of MCF associated with informal economy are smaller than unity, indicating that greater formalization can help reduce the MCF associated to the tax rates in the formal economy. Finally, expanding the concept of MCF to consider equity concerns in agent preferences can significantly alter the results. Our second essay makes an application of the MCF to estimate the Marginal Cost of Public Funds from Public Sector Borrowing ( ) for Brazil, through two approaches proposed by Dahlby (2006, 2008). The results show that the is above unity in both measures, so that a reduction of R$ 1,00 of debt imply a welfare improvement over R$ 1,00 for the Brazilian economy. Thus, although the downward trend in net debt f the Brazilian public sector over the last decade and the improvement in some indicators related to the debt (such as greater participation of fixed rate bonds and others associated with prices index in the federal debt and higher average maturity connected with fixed rate bonds), a more favorable appreciation deserves prudence. Apart from the additional dead-weight losses related to increases in debt, the still high level of the internal debt and the not favorable situation of fiscal policy should be analyzed more carefully. In the third and last essay of this work we extend, in part, the analysis of Siqueira, Nogueira, Souza e Carvalho (2010), including other distortions in the economy (which may not result solely from taxes, but are affected by them) in calculating the social marginal cost of public funds (SMCF) for the cigarette and alcohol. For this purpose, we use an approach proposed by Dahlby (2006) that expands the concept of MCF to include not only equity concerns, but also the effect of externalities, addictions, and smuggling. Our results indicate that inclusion of the distortion measurement proposed in the MCF can significantly change the view from cigarette and alcoholic beverages taxation.
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Är kollektivtrafiken för dyr? : En kvantitativ studie av kollektivtrafiken i Storstockholm under 2000-talet / Is public transport too expensive? : A quantitative study of public transport in Greater Stockholm during the 21st centuaryAndersson, Jesper, Widell, Erik January 2023 (has links)
Under perioden 2000 till 2019 ökade priset för en 30-dagarsbiljett i Stockholms kollektivtrafik med 107 %. Den kraftiga prisökningen väcker frågan huruvida kollektivtrafiken i Stockholm i dagsläget är samhällsekonomiskt effektiv eller om den är för dyr? Vad beror den kraftiga prisökningen på, är den rimlig och hur påverkar den användandet av kollektivtrafiken? Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka utvecklingen av SL:s biljettpriser och kostnader ur ett samhällsekonomiskt perspektiv. Detta gjorde vi genom att kartlägga och sammanställa SL:s kostnader, intäkter och priser under tidsperioden för att avgöra vad som föranleder denna prisutveckling. Utifrån teori och tidigare litteratur diskuterade vi huruvida ökningen av biljettpriser skett utifrån en samhällsekonomisk grund eller inte och hur detta påverkar SL:s finansiering. Vi skattade ett flertal elasticiteter för att mäta effekten denna prisutveckling har på kollektivtrafikens efterfrågan och hur den skulle påverkas av ytterligare subventionering. Vi kom fram till att biljettpriset ökat på grund av kostnadsökning som främst berott på nya upphandlingar och avtal samt att prissättningen och subventioneringen sker på samhällsekonomisk grund men att den inte är optimal. Vi kommer även fram till att det finns andra argument till varför kollektivtrafiken borde subventioneras ytterligare. I det stora hela kan vi konstatera att kollektivtrafiken i Stockholm, som konsekvens av ökade kostnader hänförbara till trafikupphandlingar och en ej samhällsekonomisk optimal prissättning bidrar till en för dyr kollektivtrafik. / During the period from 2000 to 2019, the price of a 30-day ticket in Stockholm's public transportation increased by 107 %. The significant price increase raises the question of whether the current public transportation in Stockholm is efficient from an economic perspective or if it is too expensive. What is the cause of this substantial price increase, is it reasonable, and how does it affect the usage of public transportation? The purpose of this essay is to examine the development of SL's (Stockholm Public Transport) ticket prices and costs from an economic perspective. To achieve this, we conducted a mapping and compilation of SL's costs, revenues, and prices during the specified time period to determine the factors driving this price development. Based on theory and previous literature, we discussed whether the increase in ticket prices has occurred on an economic basis or not, and how it affects SL's financing. We estimated several elasticities to measure the effect this price development has on the demand for public transportation and how it would be impacted by additional subsidization. We concluded that the increase in ticket prices was due to cost increases primarily stemming from new procurement and agreements and that the pricing and subsidization are based on economic principles but are not optimal. We also found other arguments for why public transportation should be further subsidized. Overall, we can conclude that public transportation in Stockholm, as a result of increased costs related to traffic procurement and suboptimal pricing based on economic factors, contributes to an excessively expensive public transportation system.
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Heterogeneity, marginal cost and New Keynesian Phillips CurveBukhari, Syed Kalim Hyder January 2015 (has links)
The purpose of the thesis is to introduce novel measure of real marginal cost in the New Keynesian Phillips Curve (NKPC) and compares its performance with conventional mea- sures such as output gap and labour share of income. Real marginal cost is derived from a flexible function whereas labour share is based on restrictive assumption of Cobb-Douglas technology. Dynamic correlations and results of NKPC indicate that real marginal cost is better than ad hoc measure of output gap and labour share. Given the heterogeneity in price setting behaviour across sectors, cost functions and NKPC are estimated for the agriculture, manufacturing and other sectors of Pakistan's economy. Real marginal cost is derived from static and dynamic cost functions. In the presence of adjustment costs, dynamic cost functions that are consistent and integrated with their static systems are required. Such dynamic translog cost functions are estimated after testing the theoretical properties and existence of long term relationships in the static functions. Cost attributes, marginal cost, total factor productivity, technological progress, demand and substitution elasticities are derived from static and dynamic functions. Three specifications of forward looking and hybrid form of the Phillips curves are estimated with real marginal cost, output gap and labour share. Results indicate that hybrid specifications perform better than the forward looking models in terms of goodness of fit and statistical significance. Further, comparison of Phillips curves estimated with real marginal cost, output gap and labour share indicate that real marginal cost performs better in explaining inflation dynamics in Pakistan. The results indicate that forward looking behaviour dominates and high level of nominal rigidities persists in Pakistan. Finally, hybrid form of the NKPC is estimated for a panel of sixteen Asian economies. With the consideration of heterogeneity and aggregation bias, the mean group, random coefficient and weighted average coefficients are derived from individual estimates. The unobserved time variant common factors cause cross correlation in the errors that may lead towards inconsistent estimates. Therefore, cross section averages of the explanatory and the dependent variables are augmented in hybrid specification to capture the effect of latent variables. Findings suggest that the discount factor is almost 0.94, the nominal rigidities are 33% and the weights of expected and past inflation are 66% and 33% respectively. Nominal rigidities of the Asian economies are lower than the estimates for US and Euro areas. The weights of expected and past inflation of the Asian economies are consistent with the US but lower than the estimates from the Euro areas.
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Théorie économique, réalité industrielle et intérêt général. La recherche de l’optimum à Électricité de France (1946-1965) / Economic theory, industrial reality, and the public interest. The search of the optimum in Électricité de France (1946-1965)Yon, Guillaume 15 December 2016 (has links)
La nationalisation de l’électricité en France par la loi du 8 avril 1946 crée un nouveau monopole public, Électricité de France. Un petit groupe, principalement issu du corps des Ponts-et-Chaussées, est réuni pour doter l’entreprise d’une doctrine tarifaire. Marcel Boiteux, Gabriel Dessus et Pierre Massé, pour ne citer que quelques noms, pensent, au début des calculs, appliquer la meilleure science économique du temps, la théorie du rendement social de Maurice Allais. Celle-ci stipule que l’égalisation des prix aux coûts marginaux permet de porter le secteur électrique vers l’état d’efficacité maximale, donc de le gérer selon l’intérêt général et de résorber en raison les débats sur les fins de la nationalisation. La suite de l’histoire recèle un changement notable. De manière tâtonnante, partielle, progressive, souvent contradictoire, l’activité tarifaire, loin d’appliquer au secteur électrique français, par transferts de nécessité, les lois de l’efficacité, permet plutôt de décrire et donc de discuter les projets d’exploitation possibles. Nous proposons d’appeler ce processus formulation de l’optimum. Son repérage semble susceptible d’alimenter le débat sur le statut de la science économique, le type de vérité qu’elle produit, ce que l’on peut en attendre, surtout lorsqu’elle fonctionne au plus près de la décision politique. / The Act of 8 April 1946 nationalized electricity in France and created a new public monopoly, Électricité de France. A small group of people, mainly from the corps des Ponts-et-Chaussées, was assembled to provide the public utility with a pricing policy. Marcel Boiteux, Gabriel Dessus et Pierre Massé, to mention only a few names, thought they would apply to the power sector the best economic theory of their time, Maurice Allais’ théorie du rendement social. The theory claimed that marginal cost pricing would bring the power sector to a state of maximum efficiency, that it would help governing the sector according to the public interest, and solve rationally the issue of nationalization and its aims. But the story turned out to be quite different. Pricing electricity did not mean applying to the sector the laws of efficiency through transfers of necessities. Rather, in a tentative, partial, progressive, often contradictory manner, the work allowed to describe and thus discuss possible exploitation projects. I propose to term this process the formulation of the optimum. Identifying such a process, I suggest, might contribute to the debate on the status of economics, the kind of truth it produces, and what we can expect from it, especially when it is closely associated with political decision making.
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Regret minimisation and system-efficiency in route choice / Minimização de Regret e eficiência do sistema em escala de rotasRamos, Gabriel de Oliveira January 2018 (has links)
Aprendizagem por reforço multiagente (do inglês, MARL) é uma tarefa desafiadora em que agentes buscam, concorrentemente, uma política capaz de maximizar sua utilidade. Aprender neste tipo de cenário é difícil porque os agentes devem se adaptar uns aos outros, tornando o objetivo um alvo em movimento. Consequentemente, não existem garantias de convergência para problemas de MARL em geral. Esta tese explora um problema em particular, denominado escolha de rotas (onde motoristas egoístas deve escolher rotas que minimizem seus custos de viagem), em busca de garantias de convergência. Em particular, esta tese busca garantir a convergência de algoritmos de MARL para o equilíbrio dos usuários (onde nenhum motorista consegue melhorar seu desempenho mudando de rota) e para o ótimo do sistema (onde o tempo médio de viagem é mínimo). O principal objetivo desta tese é mostrar que, no contexto de escolha de rotas, é possível garantir a convergência de algoritmos de MARL sob certas condições. Primeiramente, introduzimos uma algoritmo de aprendizagem por reforço baseado em minimização de arrependimento, o qual provamos ser capaz de convergir para o equilíbrio dos usuários Nosso algoritmo estima o arrependimento associado com as ações dos agentes e usa tal informação como sinal de reforço dos agentes. Além do mais, estabelecemos um limite superior no arrependimento dos agentes. Em seguida, estendemos o referido algoritmo para lidar com informações não-locais, fornecidas por um serviço de navegação. Ao usar tais informações, os agentes são capazes de estimar melhor o arrependimento de suas ações, o que melhora seu desempenho. Finalmente, de modo a mitigar os efeitos do egoísmo dos agentes, propomos ainda um método genérico de pedágios baseados em custos marginais, onde os agentes são cobrados proporcionalmente ao custo imposto por eles aos demais. Neste sentido, apresentamos ainda um algoritmo de aprendizagem por reforço baseado em pedágios que, provamos, converge para o ótimo do sistema e é mais justo que outros existentes na literatura. / Multiagent reinforcement learning (MARL) is a challenging task, where self-interested agents concurrently learn a policy that maximise their utilities. Learning here is difficult because agents must adapt to each other, which makes their objective a moving target. As a side effect, no convergence guarantees exist for the general MARL setting. This thesis exploits a particular MARL problem, namely route choice (where selfish drivers aim at choosing routes that minimise their travel costs), to deliver convergence guarantees. We are particularly interested in guaranteeing convergence to two fundamental solution concepts: the user equilibrium (UE, when no agent benefits from unilaterally changing its route) and the system optimum (SO, when average travel time is minimum). The main goal of this thesis is to show that, in the context of route choice, MARL can be guaranteed to converge to the UE as well as to the SO upon certain conditions. Firstly, we introduce a regret-minimising Q-learning algorithm, which we prove that converges to the UE. Our algorithm works by estimating the regret associated with agents’ actions and using such information as reinforcement signal for updating the corresponding Q-values. We also establish a bound on the agents’ regret. We then extend this algorithm to deal with non-local information provided by a navigation service. Using such information, agents can improve their regrets estimates, thus performing empirically better. Finally, in order to mitigate the effects of selfishness, we also present a generalised marginal-cost tolling scheme in which drivers are charged proportional to the cost imposed on others. We then devise a toll-based Q-learning algorithm, which we prove that converges to the SO and that is fairer than existing tolling schemes.
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MODELS OF EFFICIENT CONSUMER PRICING SCHEMES IN ELECTRICITY MARKETSCelebi, Emre January 2005 (has links)
Suppliers in competitive electricity markets regularly respond to prices that change hour by hour or even more frequently, but most consumers respond to price changes on a very different time scale, i. e. they observe and respond to changes in price as reflected on their monthly bills. This thesis examines mixed complementarity programming models of equilibrium that can bridge the speed of response gap between suppliers and consumers, yet adhere to the principle of marginal cost pricing of electricity. It develops a computable equilibrium model to estimate the time-of-use (TOU) prices that can be used in retail electricity markets. An optimization model for the supply side of the electricity market, combined with a price-responsive geometric distributed lagged demand function, computes the TOU prices that satisfy the equilibrium conditions. Monthly load duration curves are approximated and discretized in the context of the supplier's optimization model. The models are formulated and solved by the mixed complementarity problem approach. It is intended that the models will be useful (a) in the regular exercise of setting consumer prices (i. e. , TOU prices that reflect the marginal cost of electricity) by a regulatory body (e. g. , Ontario Energy Board) for jurisdictions (e. g. , Ontario) where consumers' prices are regulated, but suppliers offer into a competitive market, (b) for forecasting in markets without price regulation, but where consumers pay a weighted average of wholesale price, (c) in evaluation of the policies regarding time-of-use pricing compared to the single pricing, and (d) in assessment of the welfare changes due to the implementation of TOU prices.
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MODELS OF EFFICIENT CONSUMER PRICING SCHEMES IN ELECTRICITY MARKETSCelebi, Emre January 2005 (has links)
Suppliers in competitive electricity markets regularly respond to prices that change hour by hour or even more frequently, but most consumers respond to price changes on a very different time scale, i. e. they observe and respond to changes in price as reflected on their monthly bills. This thesis examines mixed complementarity programming models of equilibrium that can bridge the speed of response gap between suppliers and consumers, yet adhere to the principle of marginal cost pricing of electricity. It develops a computable equilibrium model to estimate the time-of-use (TOU) prices that can be used in retail electricity markets. An optimization model for the supply side of the electricity market, combined with a price-responsive geometric distributed lagged demand function, computes the TOU prices that satisfy the equilibrium conditions. Monthly load duration curves are approximated and discretized in the context of the supplier's optimization model. The models are formulated and solved by the mixed complementarity problem approach. It is intended that the models will be useful (a) in the regular exercise of setting consumer prices (i. e. , TOU prices that reflect the marginal cost of electricity) by a regulatory body (e. g. , Ontario Energy Board) for jurisdictions (e. g. , Ontario) where consumers' prices are regulated, but suppliers offer into a competitive market, (b) for forecasting in markets without price regulation, but where consumers pay a weighted average of wholesale price, (c) in evaluation of the policies regarding time-of-use pricing compared to the single pricing, and (d) in assessment of the welfare changes due to the implementation of TOU prices.
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Essays in macroeconomics and public financePereira, Thiago Neves 25 March 2011 (has links)
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Previous issue date: 2011-03-25 / This thesis is dedicated to study of tax schedule. I investigate how a tax schedule could affect the individuals’ choice and consequently the resources of the country. I show how a tax schedule induce the individuals’ choice, defining hence the allocations of labor, output and consumption of society. In the first and the second chapters I examine the taxation of individuals, while in the third and the fourth chapter I analyze the incidence of levies on different agents of economy. In the chapter one, I examine the optimal tax schedule, following Mirrlees (1971) e Saez (2001). I show how would be the optimal tax schedule in Brazil, charactering by a deeper income inequality among the individuals. Moreover, I investigate a affine tax schedule, that is considered an alternative tax schedule between the current and optimal tax schedule. In the second chapter I analyze the tax schedule known as equal sacrifice. I show how the tax schedule derived by Young (1987), that was renewed by Berliant and Gouveia (1993), behavior itself in the efficiency test derived byWerning (2007). In the third and the fourth chapter I examine how tax reform proposals would affect the Brazilian’s economy. In the third chapter I investigate how a tax reform affects different social classes. In chapter four, I study the better directions to a tax reform in Brazil, showing which rearrange of levies is the less inefficient to the country. In the end, I investigate the effects of two tax reform proposals in the Brazilian economy. I define the gains of output and welfare in each proposal. I call the special attention to gains/loses of short run, because they could make no possible to approve a tax reform, even though the reform could good effects in the long run. / Esta tese dedica-se ao estudo dos sistemas tributários. Eu investigo como um sistema tributário afeta as escolhas dos indivíduos e consequentemente os recursos do país. Eu mostro como um sistema tributário induz as escolhas das pessoas, determinado assim as alocações de trabalho, produto e consumo da economia. No primeiro e segundo capítulo eu examino a taxação sobre os indivíduos, enquanto que no terceiro e quarto capítulos analiso a incidîncia tributária sobre os diferentes agentes da sociedade. No capítulo um, eu examino o sistema tributário ótimo, seguindo Mirrlees (1971) e Saez (2001). Eu mostro como seria este sistema tributário no Brasil, país com profunda desigualdade de renda entre os indivíduos. Ademais, eu investigo o sistema tributário afim, considerado uma alternativa entre os sistemas atual e o ótimo. No segundo capítulo eu analiso o sistema tributário conhecido como sacríficio igual. Mostro como o sistema tribuária derivado por Young (1987), redesenhado por Berliant and Gouveia (1993), se comporta no teste de eficiência derivado por Werning (2007). No terceiro e quarto capítulo eu examino como propostas de reforma tribuária afetariam a economia brasileira. No capítulo três investigo como uma reforma tributária atingiria as diferentes classes socias. No capítulo quatro, eu estudo as melhores direções para uma reforma tributária no Brasil, mostrando qual arranjo de impostos é menos ineficiente para o país. Por fim, investigo os efeitos de duas propostas de reforma tributária sobre a economia brasileira. Explicito quais os ganhos de produto e bem estar de cada proposta. Dedico especial atenção aos ganhos/perdas de curto prazo, pois estes podem inviabilizar uma reforma tributária, mesmo esta gerando ganhos de longo prazo.
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Regret minimisation and system-efficiency in route choice / Minimização de Regret e eficiência do sistema em escala de rotasRamos, Gabriel de Oliveira January 2018 (has links)
Aprendizagem por reforço multiagente (do inglês, MARL) é uma tarefa desafiadora em que agentes buscam, concorrentemente, uma política capaz de maximizar sua utilidade. Aprender neste tipo de cenário é difícil porque os agentes devem se adaptar uns aos outros, tornando o objetivo um alvo em movimento. Consequentemente, não existem garantias de convergência para problemas de MARL em geral. Esta tese explora um problema em particular, denominado escolha de rotas (onde motoristas egoístas deve escolher rotas que minimizem seus custos de viagem), em busca de garantias de convergência. Em particular, esta tese busca garantir a convergência de algoritmos de MARL para o equilíbrio dos usuários (onde nenhum motorista consegue melhorar seu desempenho mudando de rota) e para o ótimo do sistema (onde o tempo médio de viagem é mínimo). O principal objetivo desta tese é mostrar que, no contexto de escolha de rotas, é possível garantir a convergência de algoritmos de MARL sob certas condições. Primeiramente, introduzimos uma algoritmo de aprendizagem por reforço baseado em minimização de arrependimento, o qual provamos ser capaz de convergir para o equilíbrio dos usuários Nosso algoritmo estima o arrependimento associado com as ações dos agentes e usa tal informação como sinal de reforço dos agentes. Além do mais, estabelecemos um limite superior no arrependimento dos agentes. Em seguida, estendemos o referido algoritmo para lidar com informações não-locais, fornecidas por um serviço de navegação. Ao usar tais informações, os agentes são capazes de estimar melhor o arrependimento de suas ações, o que melhora seu desempenho. Finalmente, de modo a mitigar os efeitos do egoísmo dos agentes, propomos ainda um método genérico de pedágios baseados em custos marginais, onde os agentes são cobrados proporcionalmente ao custo imposto por eles aos demais. Neste sentido, apresentamos ainda um algoritmo de aprendizagem por reforço baseado em pedágios que, provamos, converge para o ótimo do sistema e é mais justo que outros existentes na literatura. / Multiagent reinforcement learning (MARL) is a challenging task, where self-interested agents concurrently learn a policy that maximise their utilities. Learning here is difficult because agents must adapt to each other, which makes their objective a moving target. As a side effect, no convergence guarantees exist for the general MARL setting. This thesis exploits a particular MARL problem, namely route choice (where selfish drivers aim at choosing routes that minimise their travel costs), to deliver convergence guarantees. We are particularly interested in guaranteeing convergence to two fundamental solution concepts: the user equilibrium (UE, when no agent benefits from unilaterally changing its route) and the system optimum (SO, when average travel time is minimum). The main goal of this thesis is to show that, in the context of route choice, MARL can be guaranteed to converge to the UE as well as to the SO upon certain conditions. Firstly, we introduce a regret-minimising Q-learning algorithm, which we prove that converges to the UE. Our algorithm works by estimating the regret associated with agents’ actions and using such information as reinforcement signal for updating the corresponding Q-values. We also establish a bound on the agents’ regret. We then extend this algorithm to deal with non-local information provided by a navigation service. Using such information, agents can improve their regrets estimates, thus performing empirically better. Finally, in order to mitigate the effects of selfishness, we also present a generalised marginal-cost tolling scheme in which drivers are charged proportional to the cost imposed on others. We then devise a toll-based Q-learning algorithm, which we prove that converges to the SO and that is fairer than existing tolling schemes.
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