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Circadian rhythms are self-sustained, 24h, biological oscillatory processes that are present in organisms ranging from bacteria to human. Circadian rhythms, which can be synchronized by external cues, are important for organisms to adjust their behavior, physiological activity, and metabolic reactions to changes in environmental conditions. Another well-established oscillatory mechanism that shares common organizational and regulatory features with the circadian system, is the cell division cycle. Recent findings reveal that some essential regulators are common to both the cell cycle and the circadian clock. The first half of my thesis (Chapter 2-3) focuses on the function of Period 2 (Per2), a key regulatory component of the negative feedback arm of the clock and tumor suppressor protein, as a modulator of cell cycle response. We found that Per2 binds the C-terminus end of the tumor suppressor p53 thus forming a trimeric complex with p53's negative regulator Mdm2 and preventing Mdm2-mediated p53's ubiquitination and degradation. Thus, Per2 stabilizes p53 under unstressed conditions allowing for basal levels of the protein to exist and be available for a rapid response to take place in case of any stressed signals. Our experiments prove that Per2 plays an indispensible role in p53 signaling pathway. The second half of my thesis (Chapter 4-5) focuses on how Mdm2 and Per2 interplay regulate Per2 availability and its impact on circadian clock function. My research found that Mdm2 targets Per2 for ubiquitination as Mdm2 depletion stabilizes Per2 and, conversely, Mdm2 ectopic expression shorten Per2's half-life. Accordingly, association of Per2 to Mdm2 maps C-terminus of the p53 binding region in Mdm2 and thus, the RING domain remains accessible. Next, we tested the hypothesis that Mdm2-dependent ubiquitination of Per2 directly impacts circadian clock period length. Accordingly, addition of sempervirine nitrate (SN), a specific molecular inhibitor of Mdm2, to MEF cells abrogated Per2 ubiquitination leading to the accumulation of a stable pool of Per2. By recording the oscillatory behavior of the Per2:Luc reporter system in MEF cells treated with SN at different circadian times, we found that inhibition of Mdm2 E3 ligase activity promoted phase advance only when treatment took place during the degradation period. This is in agreement with our findings that radiation, but not light pulses, causes the same phase behavior. Considering the established role of both Mdm2 and p53 in the response of cells to genotoxic stress and Per2 in modulating the clock, the existence of the Mdm2-Per2-p53 complex opens the possibility of various stimuli triggering regulatory mechanisms converging in a critical node. Overall, our work provides a holistic view of how signals are integrated at multiple levels to ensure that environmental signals are sense and responses triggered timely. / Ph. D.

Circadian rhythm is a ~24-h mechanism that keeps our physiology and behavior in synchrony with environmental changes. PERIOD2 (PER2) is a core component of the circadian clock and a candidate tumor suppressor as its knockout expression results in a cancer-prone animal. p53 is an effector in the DNA damage response and regulates downstream effectors by trans-activation. Recent studies in our lab show that PER2 can bind to p53, and regulates the trans-activation function. This project studied the subcellular distribution of PER2 in response to DNA damage, and explored the role of p53 in the regulation of PER2 subcellular distribution. We found that PER2 accumulates in the nucleus in response to DNA damage, and such accumulation is independent of p53. In addition, we analyzed Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) of PER2 in the 1000 Genome project to gain insight onto how missense mutations in PER2 lay at the interface of p53:PER2 binding. In a separate project, we also performed bioinformatics analysis on the iron related genes to discuss the circadian regulation of iron genes in the liver. These findings shed light on the regulation of PER2 under genotoxic stress, genetic variations of Per2 in normal human population, and expression of circadian genes under iron controlled diets. / Master of Science / Circadian rhythm is a ~24-h mechanism that keeps the body in synchrony with the environment. Period2 (Per2) is a gene at the core of circadian rhythm in mammals. In this work, we found that PER2 accumulates in the nucleus of cells in response to DNA damage. In addition, we analyzed the genetic variation of PER2 in general human population to gain insight onto how mutations in PER2 affect the risk of cancer that’s associated to circadian disruption. In a separate project, we performed bioinformatics analysis on the genes related to iron metabolism, and showed pattern of circadian regulation of iron genes in the liver. These findings shed light on how circadian rhythm responds to genotoxic stress, and summarized genetic variations of Per2 in normal human population, and the expression of circadian genes under iron-controlled diets.

La protéine multifonctionnelle E4F1 fut initialement identifiée comme une cible de l'oncoprotéine virale E1A au cours de l'infection par l'adénovirus. Nos données, ainsi que celles d'autres laboratoires, montrent qu'E4F1 intervient à de multiples niveaux de régulation de la voie p53, une voie de signalisation très fréquemment inactivée au cours de la tumorigenèse. Au cours de ma thèse, j'ai mis en évidence et caractérisé un nouveau niveau de régulation impliquant la protéine E4F1 et un autre régulateur important de la voie p53 : l'oncoprotéine Mdm2. Mes travaux ont permis de montrer, pour la première fois, qu'E4F1 et Mdm2 sont présents dans un même complexe multiprotéique associé à la chromatine et dont le recrutement est indépendant de p53. La formation du complexe E4F1-Mdm2 est sous la dépendance de certains stress cellulaires, telle que la réponse aux stress oxydatifs. De plus, Mdm2 et E4F1 sont capables de s'ubiquitinyler mutuellement sans promouvoir leur protéolyse. Nos résultats préliminaires suggèrent que ce complexe chromatinien Mdm2-E4F1 est impliqué dans le contrôle d'un programme transcriptionnel apparenté à une réponse au stress oxydatif. L'ensemble de ces données suggère des fonctions de Mdm2 au niveau de la chromatine, indépendantes de sa fonction bien décrite de régulateur du suppresseur de tumeur p53. / E4F1 is a multifunctional protein that was first identified as a cellular target of the viral oncoprotein E1A during adenoviral infection. We, and others, have shown that E4F1 impinges at different level of the p53 pathway, which is frequently inactivated during tumorigenesis. During my PhD, I have highlighted and characterized a novel level of regulation implicating E4F1 and an other key regulator of the p53 pathway: the Mdm2 oncoprotein.My work have shown for the first time that Mdm2 and E4F1 directly interact in a same multiprotein complex associated with chromatin, and this recruitment occurs independently of p53. The Mdm2-E4F1 complex formation is dependant of some cellular stresses, such as oxidative stresses reponses. Our preliminary data also indicate that E4F1 and Mdm2 ubiquitylate each other without promoting their proteolysis, and influence their stability on chromatin. Our preliminary results indicate that this Mdm2-E4F1 chromatinian complex is involved in the regulation of a transcriptional program dependant of oxidative stresses. These data support the notion that Mdm2 presents unexpected functions on chromatin, independently of its very well described p53 regulation.

Le rétinoblastome est une tumeur rare qui touche la rétine du jeune enfant. L’inactivation bi-allélique du gène RB1 est à l’origine du développement tumoral. RB1 est le premier gène suppresseur de tumeur qui ait été identifié et la prédisposition au rétinoblastome constitue un véritable paradigme de la prédisposition aux cancers. Dans les formes non prédisposées génétiquement, les deux mutations apparaissent dans une cellule rétinienne unique ; le rétinoblastome est alors unilatéral. Dans les formes à prédisposition génétique, la première mutation est constitutionnelle et la deuxième est somatique. La mutation constitutionnelle est une néo-mutation pré- ou post- zygotique dans les formes sporadiques, alors qu’elle est héritée dans les formes familiales. Dans les formes avec prédisposition génétique, le diagnostic est plus précoce que dans les formes sans prédisposition et la bilatérisation du rétinoblastome est généralement la règle. Néanmoins, de rares familles présentent une pénétrance réduite et une variabilité phénotypique se traduisant par la coexistence de patients atteints de rétinoblastome bilatéral ou unilatéral, d’apparentés porteurs sains et d’apparentés présentant des rétinomes. Les mécanismes responsables de la variabilité phénotypique intrafamiliale sont inconnus et l’existence de facteurs génétiques modulant le phénotype tumoral est probable.L’origine de la variabilité de l’expression phénotypique du rétinoblastome peut être la résultante (i) de l’existence de mutations en mosaïque, (ii) de mutations de RB1 et (iii) de facteurs modificateurs génétiques indépendants du locus de RB1. Trois axes distincts et originaux basés sur ces origines possibles de variabilité phénotypique ont été développés pour caractériser les relations génotype/phénotype dans le rétinoblastome. Premièrement, les conséquences d’une mosaïque somatique ont été illustrées grâce à l’étude d’une famille ayant bénéficié de cinq diagnostics prénatals. Dans ces familles, certains fœtus porteurs de l’allèle à risque identifié par une approche indirecte basée sur l’étude de microsatellites au locus de RB1, n’étaient pas porteurs de la mutation du parent atteint, lui-même atteint d’un rétinoblastome bilatéral. Ainsi, nous avons démontré la présence d’une mosaïque somatique et gonadique chez ce parent lourdement atteint. La conséquence de l’existence de patients présentant une mosaïque dans le cadre du conseil génétique a été discutée. La suite de nos travaux a pris en compte ces résultats afin de limiter les biais que pourrait induire la présence de mutations en mosaïque dans des études de corrélation génotype/phénotype dans le rétinoblastome. Deuxièmement, l’association de grandes délétions emportant RB1 avec des retards psychomoteurs chez des patients atteints de rétinoblastome a été étudiée. Une approche de CGH hautement résolutive, ciblée sur le locus de RB1, a été mise en place afin de caractériser le rôle des gènes contigus de RB1 dans ce syndrome. Ainsi, cette approche a permis de définir une zone à risque de retard psychomoteur que nous proposons comme seuil d’alerte pour le généticien. Cette zone définit un gène, PCDH8 d’expression cérébrale exclusive, comme un excellent candidat au retard psychomoteur. Enfin, troisièmement, une approche « gène candidat » reposant sur l’étude du SNP309 du promoteur de MDM2, a été mise en œuvre. / Retinoblastoma is the most common intraocular childhood cancer and occurs when both alleles of the RB1 gene are inactivated in the retina. In patients without genetic predisposition, the two mutations occurred in a single unique retinal cell. In subjects with a genetic predisposition to retinoblastoma, the first RB1 mutation is found in the germline and the second appears as a somatic mutation. Germline carriers usually develop bilateral or multifocal tumors and the diagnosis is earlier. However, some rare families exhibit low penetrance and variable expressivity of the disease because bilaterally affected, unilaterally affected, and unaffected mutation carriers are known to coexist. The existence of genetic modifiers in retinoblastoma therefore appears highly probable and must be considered. The lack of penetrance and the variable expressivity could be the sum of three independent causes. The presence of a mosaic can affect the phenotype, the nature of the mutation can drive low penetrance and particular phenotype like psychomotor delay in case of large genomic deletions and genetic modifier factors could modulate the phenotype. These three major keys have been studied in order to highlight the relations between the phenotype and the genotype. Firstly, the consequences of mosaicism have been illustrated by a prenatal diagnosis concerning a couple with a bilateral retinoblastoma-affected male patient who requested five successive prenatal diagnoses and in whom RB1 mutation mosaicism had important implications. Implications of mosaicism in genetic counseling have been discussed and taken into consideration in order to limit bias in the two following genotype/phenotype studies. Secondly, the association between whole germline monoallelic deletions of the RB1 gene and psychomotor delay was studied by a high-resolution CGH array focusing on RB1 and its flanking region. Comparative analysis detected a four megabase critical interval including a candidate gene, protocadherin 8 (PCDH8). PCDH8 is thought to function in signaling pathways and cell adhesion in a central nervous system-specific manner, making loss of PCDH8 one of the probable causes of psychomotor delay in RB1-deleted patients. Thirdly, a candidate gene approach based on partners that are necessary for the development of the tumor attempted to find possible genetic modifiers. MDM2, which increases p53 and pRB catabolism, was therefore a prominent candidate. The minor allele of MDM2 that includes a 309T>G transversion (SNP rs2279744) in the MDM2 promoter is known to enhance MDM2 expression. In family-based association analyses performed in 70 retinoblastoma families, the MDM2 309G allele was found to be statistically significantly associated with incidence of bilateral or unilateral retinoblastoma among members of retinoblastoma families under a recessive model (Z = 3.305, two-sided exact P = .001). The strong association of this genotype with retinoblastoma development designates MDM2 as the first modifier gene to be identified among retinoblastoma patients

As proteínas MDM2, P53, P21 e pAKT estão entre as muitas já identificadas que visam, por meio do equilíbrio direto e indireto entre si, manter o balanço entre morte e proliferação celular. Existe um leque aberto de hipóteses sobre a via de atuação dessas proteínas na tumorigênese de glândulas salivares, porém não há dados conclusivos. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a expressão das proteínas MDM2, P53, P21 e pAkt em carcinoma adenóide cístico e adenocarcinoma não-específico de glândula salivar, através das técnicas de imunoistoquímica, em casos fixados em parafina; e imunofluorescência e western-blotting, em linhagens celulares provenientes dessas lesões. Os estudos imunoistoquímicos mostraram expressão de MDM2 e pAKT na maioria dos carcinomas adenóides císticos (CAC) avaliados e nos 3 casos de adenocarcinoma não-específicos (ANE). As linhagens Cac2 (proveniente de carcinoma adenóide cístico) e HSG (derivada de adenocarcinoma não-específico) também exibiram expressão das proteínas MDM2 e pAKT tanto no núcleo quanto no citoplasma celular. A proteína P53 mostrou expressão variável entre os diferentes CAC analisados e os 3 casos de ANE estudados mostraram marcação positiva para a proteína P53. Com relação às linhagens celulares, a Cac2 não expressou a proteína P53, enquanto a HSG apresentou expressão nuclear e citoplasmática dessa proteína. As glândulas salivares normais não exibiram marcação imunoistoquímica para as proteínas MDM2, P53, P21 e pAKT. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem que as proteínas pAKT e MDM2 estão envolvidas na tumorigênese e/ou progressão tumoral de carcinoma adenóide cístico e adenocarcinoma não especifico. / MDM2, P53, P21 and pAKT are proteins co-related to the balance between cell death and survival. There are many hypothesis on the role of these proteins in salivary gland tumorigenesis, however, no conclusive data have been published. Theaim of this study was to evaluate the expression of MDM2, P53, P21 and pAKT proteins on adenoid cystic carcinomas (ACC) and adenocarcinoma not otherwise specified (ANOS) through immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and westernblotting techniques. The immunostaining studies showed MDM2 and pAKT expression in most cases of adenoid cystic carcinoma and in all adenocarcinoma not-otherwise specified. The cell lines CAC2 (derived from adenoid cystic carcinoma) and HSG (derived from adenocarcinoma not otherwise specified) also showed nuclear and cytoplasmic expression of MDM2 and pAKT. The expression of P53 was variable in the different ACCs analyzed and was absent on CAC2 cells. However, P53 was strongly positive in all ANOS, and HSG cells also showed nuclear and cytoplasmic staining. No MDM2, P53, P21 and pAKT expression was found in normal salivary glands. Therefore, MDM2 and pAKT may participate in the tumorigenesis and/or progression of adenoid cystic carcinoma and adenocarcinoma not otherwise specified.

Einleitung: Das p53 Tumorsuppressorgen spielt eine zentrale Rolle für Regulation des Zellzyklus und die Induktion der Apoptose. MDM2, das Protein des mdm2 Gens, bindet an p53, hemmt seine Funktion als Transkriptionsfaktor und bewirkt den raschen Abbau des Proteins. Methode: Gefriergewebe von 178 primären Ovarialkarzinomen wurde mittels PCR, SSCP Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism), DNA-Sequenzierung und Immunhistochemie auf p53 Mutationen (exon 2-11) und p53 Proteinüberexpression untersucht. Das mdm2-Gen wurde an 92 Ovarialkarzinomen, neun Borderline-Tumoren, sechs Cystadenomen und 20 normalen Ovargeweben mittels reverse Transkriptase PCR der Gesamt-RNA und Sequenzierung der mdm2-cDNA auf alternatives RNA-splicing untersucht. Ergebnisse: p53 Mutationen waren in 56% (99/178) und eine p53 Proteinüberexpression in 62% (110/178) der Ovarialkarzinome nachweisbar. Bei p53 Mutationen war die rezidivfreie und Gesamtüberlebenszeit der Patientinnen signifikant kürzer als bei p53 Wildtyp (p=0,029 und p=0,014). Patientinnen mit p53 Überexpression (p=0,001) oder p53 missense Mutationen (p=0,008) waren signifikant häufiger resistent oder refraktär gegen eine Chemotherapie mit Cis- oder Carboplatin und Cyclophosphamid als Patientinnen mit normalem p53. mdm2 alternatives oder aberrantes RNA splicing war in 66/92 (72%) der Ovarialkarzinome, 7/9 (78%) der Borderline-Tumore, 5/6 (83%) der Cystadenome und 11/20 (55%) der normalen Ovargewebe nachweisbar. Eine Gesamtzahl von 30 verschiedenen Splice-Varianten-Sequenzen wurde identifiziert, von denen 22 einen partiellen oder vollständigen Verlust der p53 Bindungsstelle aufwiesen. Bei 28/30 der Sequenzen fand das splicing nicht an Exon/Intron-Grenzen statt, so daß diese als aberrantes Splicing klassifiziert wurden. Eine splice-Variante von 654 bp (mdm2b) wurde in 41% der Ovarialkarzinome, aber nur 11% (1/9) der Borderline-Tumore und 5% (1/20) der normalen Ovargewebe exprimiert. Die Expression von mdm2b in Ovarialkarzinomen korrelierte signifikant mit schlechtem Differenzierungsgrad (p=0,004), Resttumor nach Operation (p=0,004), hoher S-phase-Fraktion (p=0,016) und p53 Proteinüberexpression (p=0,018). Eine kürzere Splice-Variante von 221 bp war in nur 16% der Ovarialkarzinome, 56% der Borderline-Tumore und 40% der normalen Ovargewebe nachweisbar und korrelierte mit frühem Stadium (p=0,017) und längerem Gesamtüberleben (p=0,048) bei Ovarialkarzinom. Zusammenfassung: p53 Alterationen korrelieren in der univariaten Analyse signifikant mit einer Resistenz gegen eine platinhaltige Chemotherapie, frühem Rezidiv und kürzerem Gesamtüberleben bei Ovarialkarzinom. In der multivariablen Analyse ist p53 jedoch kein unabhängiger Prognosefaktor. mdm2 alternatives und aberrantes Splicing sind in Ovarialkarzinomen häufig, kommen aber auch in normalem Ovargewebe vor. Während die Expression der mdm2b Splice-Variante mit histologisch aggressiveren Tumoren assoziiert war, kamen kürzere Splice-Varianten typischerweise in frühen Ovarialkarzinomen und benignen Geweben vor. mdm2 Alterationen stabilisieren möglicherweise das p53 Protein und führen ohne Vorhandensein einer p53 Mutation zu einer Proteinakkumulation in Ovarialkarzinomen. / Objective: The p53 tumor suppressor gene plays a central role in cell cycle regulation and induction of apoptosis. MDM2, the protein of the mdm2 gene, binds to p53, inhibits its transcriptional activity and promotes nuclear export and rapid degradation of the p53 protein. Methods: Frozen tissue of 178 ovarian carcinomas was analyzed for mutations of the p53 gene (exons 2-11) and p53 overexpression by SSCP (Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism), DNA-sequencing and immunohistochemistry. 92 cases of ovarian cancer, nine borderline ovarian tumors, six cystadenomas and 20 normal ovarian tissues were analyzed for mdm2 alternative RNA splicing by reverse transcription of total RNA, nested PCR amplification of mdm2 cDNAs and DNA sequencing of RT-PCR products. Results: p53 mutations were found in 56% (99/178) and p53 protein overexpression in 62% (110/178) of the tumors. Time to progression and overall survival were significantly shortened in patients with p53 mutations compared to wildtype p53 (p=0.029 and p=0.014). Resistance to adjuvant Cis- or Carboplatin chemotherapy was significantly more frequent in patients with p53 overexpression (p=0.001) or p53 missense mutations (p=0.008) than patients with normal p53. mdm2 RNA splicing was seen in 66/92 (72%) of the ovarian carcinomas, 7/9 (78%) of borderline tumors, 5/6 (83%) of benign cystadenomas and 11/20 (55%) of the normal ovarian tissues. A total of 30 splice variant sequences were identified, out of which 22 had a partial or complete loss of the p53 binding site. 28/30 do not splice at exon/intron boundaries and were therefore considered aberrant splice variants. The mdm2b splice variant of 654 bp, which splices out most of the p53 binding domain, was expressed in 41% of ovarian carcinomas, but only in 1/9 (11%) LMP tumors, and 1/20 (5%) of the normal ovaries. Expression of mdm2b in ovarian carcinomas was significantly correlated with poor grade of differentiation (p=0.004), residual tumor after surgery (p=0.004), high S-phase fraction (p=0.016) and p53 protein overexpression (p=0.018). A small splice variant of only 221 bp was present in only 16% of the ovarian carcinomas, but 56% of borderline tumors, and 40% of normal ovarian tissues and was correlated with early stage of ovarian cancer (p=0.017) and longer overall survival (p=0.048). Conclusion: p53 alterations correlate significantly with resistance to platinum-based chemotherapy, early relapse and shortened overall survival in ovarian cancer patients in univariate analysis. In multivariable analysis though, p53 was not an independent prognostic factor. mdm2 alternative and aberrant splicing was found frequently in ovarian tumors but also in normal ovarian tissue. While expression of the mdm2b splice variant was associated with histologically more aggressive ovarian carcinomas, smaller size variants were typically seen in early stage ovarian carcinomas and benign tissues. mdm2 alterations may stabilize p53 protein and cause p53 accumulation in the absence of p53 mutation in ovarian tumors.