The purpose of this mixed-methods case study research is to discover how, in relation to trade liberalisation in Vietnam's Mekong Delta, intangible assets affect livelihood outcomes of the ethnic majority Kinh and the ethnic minority Khmer people. Methods used include a random survey of 150 ethnic majority (Kinh) rice farmers combined with focus group data from Khmer ethnic minority people. Data shows that lack of access to information about the changing economic circumstances generated by trade reform has caused farmers to take sub-optimal decisions about the diversification of their crops. The economic outcomes on Khmer farmers have also been negatively affected by a lack of information, compounded by rigid gender roles, lack of education, discrimination, language problems and isolation from the majority ethnic group. These factors have contributed considerably to the negative outcomes of liberalisation, including loss of land, and have impeded people's ability to make use of emerging opportunities, including better access to markets and new ways of making a livelihood. This research shows that intangible assets interact with trade liberalisation to exacerbate existing inequalities.

The development of shrimp aquaculture in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam is implicated in several patterns of local and regional change. These change trajectories are the emergent properties of complex processes embedded in particular social and spatial contexts. While places have become more interconnected through the global shrimp trade, those interconnections have been highly uneven, distributing risks and rewards disproportionately and producing new forms of conflict and cooperation among participants in the production network.Land use and farming systems in the coastal delta have changed profoundly in recent years. While some areas have become effectively `locked in' to shrimp farming due to environmental changes initiated by salt-water aquaculture, others have remained more flexible, able to rotate rice and shrimp seasonally. Hydrologic conditions, water infrastructures, and farmer experience all contribute to the path-dependence of these change trajectories, but commodity prices exhibit the strongest influence on their direction. Price stabilization may contribute to making prices a sustaining, `slow' variable in system change, not a disruptive `fast' one, heightening overall resilience.The production network of Mekong Delta shrimp is articulated through a variety of socially embedded relationships. Most producers are linked with international markets through informal ties with input suppliers based on trust and shrimp buyers, a relationship marked by opportunism. Processors operate through long-term informal relations with importers based on quality and consistency. This variegated network of relationships means farmers bear the brunt of price shocks, but processors lack quality assurance and traceability. Efforts to link chain participants into closer affiliation must pay attention to these relationships' effects on commodity chain governance.The globalization of the shrimp industry brought about conflicts between producers in the Mekong and Mississippi Deltas. Feminist geographers have posited several responses to globalization, from `counter-topographies' to `diverse economies/resubjectivization.' Living in Viet Nam and working with shrimp producers, I attempted to use these approaches to articulate an internationalist and trans-regional politics. Interactions with people there primarily resubjectivized me and reinforced national-scaled spatial imaginaries, however. Nevertheless, being `Uncle America' offered an insightful perspective into how some Vietnamese understood themselves and Viet Nam's tortured relationship with the U.S.

The Mekong River Basin (MRB) is famous for its rice farming and export and produces more than 20 million tons of rice per year. Rice production depends on climate, irrigation, soil fertility. However, this region is adversely impacted by several environmental concerns like nutrient deficiency from sediment and saltwater intrusion. The decrease in sediment deposition in the Mekong basin is caused by a number of factors. In China, Lao PDR, and Vietnam, the hydropower generation from dams has improved people's overall living standards, leading in more dams being built or planned in the future. However, dam construction work is adversely impacting the overall salinity condition in this region by reducing upstream flow. Upstream lower flows during the dry season contributes to the increased salinity in the lower Mekong Delta. In addition to these, multiple dams in the upper and middle region of the Mekong basin are trapping sediments and decreasing it in the lower zones. This study found that the reservoirs, built by China between 2008-2015, has reduced the sediment load at all five stations considered in the study. When a reservoir is removed from the model, the sediment load is increased which showed the substantial impact of reservoir construction on sediment load in this area. The landuse pattern is another factor for variability of the sediment yield in the study area. Forest area contributes to higher sediment production whereas agricultural area results in lower sediment yield. The GFDL RCP (4.5) and GFDL RCP (8.5) future climate change projection scenarios used in this study also demonstrated substantial variability in the precipitation pattern for the study region. GFDL RCP (4.5) scenario resulted in a lower sediment yield during the dry season. On contrary to that, GFDL RCP (8.5) showed higher sediment yield due to higher precipitation during the wet season. The severe salinity impact was observed in the Cai Nuoc, Nam Can, and Thanh Phu districts. In Ca Mau province, the observed salinity is highest among the provinces of the study area during dry season (February to May), about 12-14 PPT (parts per thousand) whereas the lowest level of salinity (less than 1 PPT) was observed in the Dong Thap and Vinh Long provinces. This salinity intrusion is adversely impacting the rice production in the study area. In the year 2000, rice production in the Ca Mau province was about 100-150 thousand tons. But salinity intrusion is drastically reducing the rice production in this area, about 10-30thousand tons per year during 2015-2017. Rice production is increasing in the upper deltaic part of the Mekong Delta region where preventive measures were taken. / Master of Science / The Mekong River Basin (MRB) is famous for its rice farming and export and produces more than 20 million tons of rice per year. The rice production is governed by rainfall, temperature, irrigation, soil fertility etc. However, this region is adversely impacted by multiple environmental concerns like nutrient deficiency, sediment concentration, and salinity. The decrease in sediment deposition in the Mekong basin is caused by several factors. In China, Lao PDR, and Vietnam, the hydropower sector has improved people's overall living standards. As a result, more reservoirs are being constructed or planned to be constructed in the future. But this dam construction work is adversely impacting the overall salinity condition in this region. Upstream flows rate during the dry season (February to May) contributes to the increased salinity condition in lower Mekong Delta. In addition to these, multiple dams in the upper portion of the Mekong basin are trapping sediments and decreasing it in the lower region. From the analysis performed in this study it was found that the reservoirs, built by China between 2008-2015, has reduced the sediment load at all five stations. When the reservoir is removed from the model, the sediment load is increased implying the substantial impact of reservoir construction on sediment load in this area. The landuse pattern is another dominating factor for variability of the sediment yield in the study area. Forest area contributes to higher sediment production whereas agricultural area results in lower sediment yield. Two future climate projection scenarios considered for this study are the GFDL RCP (4.5) and GFDL RCP (8.5). These two scenarios also demonstrated substantial variability in the precipitation pattern for the study region. The severe salinity impact was observed in the Cai Nuoc, Nam Can, and Thanh Phu districts. In Ca Mau province, the observed salinity is highest among the provinces of the study area during dry season (February to May), about 12-14 PPT ((parts per thousand) whereas the lowest level of salinity (less than 1 PPT) was observed in the Dong Thap and Vinh Long provinces. This salinity intrusion is adversely impacting the rice yield in the study area. In the year 2000, rice production in the Ca Mau province was about 100-150 thousand tons. But salinity intrusion is drastically reducing the rice production in this area, about 10-30thousand tons per year during 2015-2017. Rice production is increasing in the upper deltaic part of the Mekong Delta region where preventive measures were taken.

This study was aimed to assess the status of waste treatment for cow raising at small farm households in Can Tho, Tra Vinh, Soc Trang, and Hau Giang. The interview of 120 cow farmer households indicated that local farmers normally treat their waste by sun-drying, storing in ponds, discharging directly into rivers, or applying to anaerobic biogas. The farmers select ways to treat cow excrement according to seasons of the year: in the dry season cow waste is mostly sun-dried for sale (76.7%); stored for use (10%), untreated (7.5%) or applied to biogas plants (5.8%); however, in the rainy season most of the farmers leave the waste untreated (94.2%), except for those owning biogas tanks. Biogas treatment is applied mainly by dairy cow-raising households, accounting for 85.7% of biogas users. The cow farmer households have limited knowledge about biogas application; 23.3% of the interviewed farmers knew about biogas technology; 47.5% had little knowledge about this technology, however, 29.2% of the selected persons had no idea about biogas technology. Based on the quantity of beef cattle herds in the surveyed areas, it is estimated that CH4 gas emissions account for around 252.3 tons, 61.4 tons, 8.2 tons, and 2.5 tons in Soc Trang, Tra Vinh, Can Tho, and Hau Giang, respectively. / Nghiên cứu này nhằm đánh giá hiện trạng xử lý chất thải tại các hộ chăn nuôi bò ở thành phố Cần Thơ và các tỉnh Trà Vinh, Sóc Trăng, Hậu Giang. Tổng số 120 hộ chăn nuôi đã được phỏng vấn cho thấy có 4 phương pháp xử lý chính để xử lý chất thải chăn nuôi phát sinh: ủ yếm khí (biogas), phơi khô và bán, trữ lại trong ao để sử dụng, và không xử lý. Tùy theo thời điểm trong năm người dân sẽ thay đổi cách thức xử lý chất thải chăn nuôi bò: vào mùa khô có nhiều nắng chủ yếu người dân phơi khô để bán (76,7%), để lại và sử dụng (10%), dùng để ủ biogas (5,8%), và không xử lý (7,5%); tuy nhiên vào mùa mưa hầu hết các hộ dân không xử lý chất thải chăn nuôi (94,2%), chỉ trừ những hộ dân đã có hầm ủ biogas để xử lý. Xử lý chất thải chăn nuôi bằng công nghệ biogas được áp dụng phổ biến ở các hộ nuôi bò sữa, chiếm 85,7% số hộ có hầm ủ biogas. Sự hiểu biết về công nghệ biogas của các hộ chăn nuôi còn khá giới hạn, chỉ 23,3% hộ dân được phỏng vấn biết về công nghệ biogas, 47,5% hộ biết ít về công nghệ này, trong khi 29,2% hộ dân hoàn toàn không biết. Dựa trên số lượng đàn bò thịt trong vùng khảo sát, có thể tính được lượng CH4 phát thải hàng năm từ chất thải chăn nuôi là 252,3 tấn, 61,4 tấn, 8,2 tấn và 2,5 tấn từ các địa phương Sóc Trăng, Trà Vinh, Cần Thơ, và Hậu Giang.

Soil degradation is a complex process which may occur anywhere and at any time. It directly affects the physical, chemical and biological processes within the soil profile. Soil degradation can either be as a result of natural hazards or due to manmade actions, such as mismanagement on cropping patterns, soil preparation and cultivation practices. Regardless of how it is caused, soil degradation has strong negative effects on plant and soil productivity. Soil degradation can accelerate a series of processes such as erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter, loss of whole soil biota, surface sealing and contamination. This thesis presents the assessment of soil properties to improve our understanding of soil degradation on raised-bed orchards in the Vietnamese Mekong delta (MD). Measurements were made on 10 citrus plantations which had been established during a range of years from 1970 to 1998 at Hau Giang province. Soil sampling was made in the dry season of 2010 at two soil depths for each raised-bed to determine soil chemical and physical properties. The soil penetration resistance (PR) was periodically measured once a week together with soil sampling for moisture measurements during a period of 5 months. Analysis indicated the pH value of the soil was tending to decrease, nutrient imbalance and deficiency was developing, and the soil structure was deteriorating during the age since the raised-beds were originally constructed. Preventive and restorative measures need to be considered for restoring and retaining the quality of the soil and the ground water. These measures should consist of (1) neutralizing of excess acidity, (2) balancing of nutrients, (3) maintaining of soil organic matter, and (4) application of appropriate irrigation schedules. / Suy thoái đất là một tiến trình phức tạp xuất hiện ở mọi nơi, mọi lúc làm tác động trực tiếpđến các quá trình lý, hóa và sinh học trong phẫu diện đất. Nó có thể là kết quả của các hoạtđộng do tự nhiên hoặc do con người như sử dụng sai hoặc thực hành quản lý đất đai bất hợplý. Cho dù nguyên nhân thế nào chăng nữa, suy thoái đất cũng gây ra các ảnh hưởng bất lợinặng nề lên cây trồng và sức sản suất của đất. Suy thoái đất có thể thúc đẩy hàng loạt cácquá trình như là xói mòn, nén dẽ, mất vật liệu hữu cơ và sinh vật đất, đóng váng bề mặt vàô nhiễm. Luận văn này trình bày sự đánh giá về các đặc tính của đất để mở mang sự hiểubiết về suy thoái đất trên các vườn cây ăn trái ở đồng bằng sông Cửu Long. Thí nghiệmthực hiện trên 10 vườn cam quít với khoảng thời gian thành lập vườn từ 1970 đến 1998 tạitỉnh Hậu Giang. Mẫu đất được lấy vào mùa khô năm 2010 ở hai độ sâu cho mỗi vườn đểphân tích các chỉ tiêu lý hóa đất. Sức kháng xuyên của đất được đo định kỳ mỗi tuần kếthợp với lấy mẫu để xác định ẩm độ đất trong suốt khoảng thời gian 5 tháng. Kết quả phântích cho thấy pH đất có khuynh hướng giảm, sự thiếu và mất cân bằng dinh dưỡng đất ngàycàng lộ rõ, và cấu trúc đất đang xấu đi theo độ tuổi của vườn. Các biện pháp phòng ngừa vàphục hồi cần được quan tâm đối với việc phục hồi và duy trì chất lượng của đất và nướcngầm. Các biện pháp nên bao gồm (1) trung hòa độ chua đất, (2) cân bằng dinh dưỡng, (3)duy trì vật liệu hữu cơ trong đất, và (4) áp dụng chế độ tưới thích hợp. / <p>QC 20130909</p>

The intensification of agricultural production in the Mekong Delta has faced serious challenges with respect to increased use of agrochemicals and especially pesticides. The indiscriminate use of pesticide could potentially impact on the long-term food production, environmental and human health in the delta. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the negative side effects of the current use of pesticides on climbing perch (Anabas testudineus) in rice fields using brain acetylcholinesterase (hereafter referred to as AChE) activity as a biomarker. The empirical work, on which this thesis is based, includes structured questionnaires, laboratory and field experiments. First, a field survey using questionnaires was carried out to gain a better understanding of the current state of rice farming systems, the use of pesticides and attitude to pest management strategies among rice and rice-fish farmers, as well as to provide basic information for the set-up of the laboratory and field experiments. Secondly, laboratory studies were conducted to clarify if the selected insecticides applied alone and in mixtures caused negative side effects on climbing perch fingerlings. Thirdly, further toxicity studies were carried out, under rice field conditions, to further investigate the toxicity effects of the insecticides, applied alone, in mixtures and under sequential applications, on climbing perch fingerlings. The results showed that although there were a more selective use of pesticides and an increased awareness among farmers of the negative side effects of pesticides in 2007 as compared to 1999, the current use of pesticide in the Mekong Delta still cause many problems to the environment and human health. Chlorpyrifos ethyl (hereafter referred to as CPF) was found to cause a significant and more prolonged inhibition on the brain AChE activity in climbing perch than fenobucarb (hereafter referred to as F). The inhibition by the mixture of CPF and F were significantly higher than the inhibition by only F, but less prolonged and significant lower than the inhibition by only CPF. The results suggest that the combined effect from a mixture of F and CPF can create both additive effects initially and later antagonistic effects. CPF and F applied at concentrations used by farmers, either as separate doses, in a mixture or in sequential doses, decreased the brain AChE activity, growth and survival rates in climbing perch. The results demonstrate that brain AChE activity in climbing perch is a relevant biomarker for monitoring of exposure to, and sub-lethal impacts from organophosphates and carbamates under tropical conditions. The result also shows that 2-PAM re-activate the brain AChE activity, and can be used as an alternative method to assess the AChE inhibition level in organisms recently exposed to OP’s, in situation where it may be difficult to find unexposed individuals as controls. In conclusion, this thesis shows that the current use of pesticides in the Mekong Delta has a negative effect on climbing perch living in rice fields. It indicates that a sustained long-term food production in the Mekong Delta must be based on ecological principles, taking advantages of ecosystem biodiversity and productivity, and not through intensified use of pesticides. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 5: Submitted.</p>

Landfilling is the most common treatment of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in the An Giang province in south Vietnam. Many of the landfills are not sanitary and can be harmful to the environment and the residents, especially those who live within the settled distance limit of 1000 meters. There is a lack of knowledge about the people living close to landfills in the An Giang province. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate any issues about living close to landfills, by comparing health, knowledge and social issues, between people living near landfills and people in urban areas in the An Giang province. A total of 80 people was chosen in Long Xuyen and An Phu, for a questionnaire. The data was compiled and coded in Excel for further analyzation in SPSS. The results show differences in social issues, health and knowledge related to landfilling and solid waste. The experiences in the landfill areas could be taken in advantage. The study suggests using students in communication programs and workshops to increase knowledge and practice about solid waste among the citizens. To monitor landfills and the air in due to open burning of solid waste, is recommended. / Deponering är den vanligaste behandlingen av hushållsavfall i An Giang-provinsen i södra Vietnam. Många av dessa soptippar (deponier) är inte sanitära och kan vara skadliga för både miljön och invånarna som bor inom den bestämda avståndsgränsen på 1000 meter. Det finns brist på kunskap om de människor som bor nära deponier i An Giang-provinsen. Därför var syftet med studien att undersöka förekomsten av problem av att bo nära deponier i provinsen. Detta gjordes genom att jämföra hälsa, kunskap och sociala frågor mellan människor som bor intill deponier och människor i urbana områden. Totalt valdes 80 personer i Long Xuyen och An Phu till en enkätstudie. Uppgifterna sammanställdes och kodades i Excel för vidare analys i SPSS. Resultaten visade skillnader i sociala frågor, hälsa och kunskap relaterade till deponering och fast avfall. I deponiområdena fanns det mycket erfarenhet som skulle kunna utnyttjas. Studien föreslår bl.a. att använda skolungdomar i kommunikationskampanjer och workshops för att öka kunskap och praxis hos invånarna. Att övervakning och mäta deponier och luften p.g.a. öppen eldning av avfall, rekommenderas.

The Mekong Delta, which is considered as the main 'rice bowl and fish basket', is one of seven distinct agro-ecological regions of Vietnam and plays an important role in the economy of the country. Several rice-based farming systems have been developed in various areas of the MD. Rice-shrimp integrated system in brackish areas is a special farming system developed in this delta. It is a profitable system and seems to be environmentally safe on the one hand without the use of pesticides. On the other hand, use of brackish water in this system may result in degradation of land, as some previous studies have found. To understand how this farming system works and to identify the external and internal factors influencing its sustainability, the project 'Sustainability of rice-shrimp farming system in a brackish area in the Mekong delta of Vietnam' was carried out in 1992-1993 by an interdisciplinary team of researchers from the University of Cantho and staff of local district Agricultural Office, representing different fields of sciences. The research methodology was the Farming Systems Research approach with modifications towards soft systems thinking, involving farmers into the research process. One main result of this study is an insight into the rice-shrimp farming system. It includes various physical, biological, technological, economical and sociological aspects of rice production prior to integration and in integrated farm, naturally supplied shrimp growing and giant shrimp rearing, upland crop production as well as off-farm and non-farm work of farm households. Sustainability of the system studied is assessed, in comparison with rice monoculture, through various criteria of the three view points productivity, environmental safety and socio-economic effectiveness. In terms of such points of view, rice-shrimp farming system is rated higher than rice monoculture system. Thus the integrated system so far is considered to be more sustainable than the others. / Master of Science (Hons)

In Vietnam, the research and application of biogas technology were given a considerable attention in past 30 years. There is several biogas plant models apply in the suburban and rural areas where most people’s life is based on animal husbandry. Each biogas plant model own strong points or weakness that adapt to detail circumstances. The biogas plants play a key role within the VACB farming system especially in the Mekong Delta where produce more than 50% of yearly national agriculture production. This paper gives a comprehensive overview on the popular biogas models in the Mekong Delta through its development history. Knowing on the presented biogas technology in the Mekong Delta will lead the biogas-related organizations or private on biogas development at this region. / Ở Việt Nam việc nghiên cứu và ứng dụng công nghệ khí sinh học đã được chú ý trong 30 năm gần đây. Một số mô hình khí sinh học đã và đang được lắp đặt tại các vùng ngoại ô và nông thôn là những nơi tập trung nhiều hộ dân chăn nuôi heo. Có nhiều mô hình khí sinh học đã được triển khai, trong đó mỗi mô hình đều có những điểm mạnh và điểm yếu đáp ứng theo từng yêu cầu cụ thể. Ở ĐBSCL nơi sản xuất trên 50% sản lượng nông nghiệp của cả nước, hầm ủ khí sinh học đóng một vai trò quan trọng trong mô hình canh tác VACB. Bài báo này trình bày chi tiết các kiểu hầm ủ khí sinh học phổ biến tại ĐBSCL tương ứng với từng thời điểm phát triển của công nghệ này. Sự hiểu biết về các kiểu hầm ủ khí sinh học hiện tại ở ĐBSCL sẽ giúp các tổ chức hoặc cá nhân có liên quan trong việc định hướng phát triển công nghệ khí sinh học cho toàn vùng.

Since 1986 and especially during the early 90s, environmental protection has become a constitutional principle in Vietnam as regulated by Articles 17 and 29 of the 1992 Constitution. The first Law on Environmental Protection, passed by the National Assembly on December 27, 1993 created a foundation for environmental legislation becoming an important field in Vietnam’s legal system. In the following, Vietnam enacted its very first Law on Water Resources (No. 08/1998/QH10) in January 1999 aiming to provide a foundational framework for managing the water sector in Vietnam. In recent years, the legislative framework on water resources management has further developed. Important water-related regulations on the guidance and implementation of the Law on Water Resources have been issued and often amended to meet the requirements of the country’s development, and its international integration. To date, Vietnam’s legislation on the water sector consists of a complex system of legal documents issued by different state agencies. Though legislation of water sector management in Vietnam has greatly improved during the last decade, it has obviously not yet come to full fruition. Hence, the paper intends to provide an overview of achievements as well as problems and conflicting issues within Vietnam’s current water sector management legislation. / Kể từ năm 1986, đặc biệt là những năm đầu của thập kỷ 90, bảo vệ môi trường đã trở thành nguyên tắc hiến định (được quy định tại Điều 17 và 29 Hiến pháp 1992). Luật Bảo vệ môi trường đầu tiên được Quốc hội thông qua ngày 27 tháng 12 năm 1993 đã đặt nền móng cho việc hình thành hệ thống pháp luật về môi trường ở Việt Nam. Tiếp theo đó, ngày 20 tháng 05 năm 1998, Quốc hội nước Cộng hòa xã hội Việt Nam khóa X, kỳ họp thứ 3 đã thông qua văn bản luật đầu tiên về tài nguyên nước - Luật Tài nguyên nước số 08/1998/QH10 hình thành một nền tảng pháp lý cho hệ thống pháp luật bảo vệ nguồn tài nguyên nước ở Việt Nam. Trong những năm gần đây, hầu hết các văn bản dưới luật quan trọng và cần thiết cho việc hướng dẫn thi hành Luật Tài nguyên nước đã được ban hành và không ngừng được sửa đổi, bổ sung nhằm đáp ứng nhu cầu phát triển và hội nhập quốc tế của đất nước trong nhiều lĩnh vực khác nhau. Tuy nhiên, khung pháp lý hiện hành về tài nguyên nước ở Việt Nam bao gồm một hệ thống các văn bản quy phạm pháp luật khá phức tạp, nhiều tầng nấc, được ban hành bởi nhiều cơ quan có thẩm quyền khác nhau. Mặc dù hệ thống pháp luật về tài nguyên nước đã được liên tục sửa đổi, bổ sung và hoàn thiện trong suốt một thập kỷ qua, nhưng rõ ràng vẫn chưa thực sự đi vào cuộc sống. Bài viết dưới đây đề cập chủ yến đến một số các thành tựu cũng như những vấn đề mâu thuẫn hiện tại của pháp luật bảo vệ nguồn tài nguyên nước ở Việt Nam.