CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Esse trabalho teve por objetivo, investigar se, e de que maneira, o conhecimento metalinguÃstico do sistema fonolÃgico da LI influi no nÃvel de acurÃcia da produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos de professores de inglÃs em formaÃÃo e como este conhecimento lhes possibilita a melhor monitorar sua pronÃncia. Mais especificamente, buscÃvamos: identificar os problemas de produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos do inglÃs apresentados por aprendizes dessa lÃngua; investigar o nÃvel de percepÃÃo dos professores de inglÃs em formaÃÃo acerca de seus problemas na produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos da LI; analisar se, à medida que os professores em formaÃÃo adquirem conhecimento metalinguÃstico sobre o sistema fonolÃgico da LI durante a disciplina Fonologia da LÃngua Inglesa, passaram a identificar com mais precisÃo seus problemas/dificuldades de pronÃncia dos fonemas vocÃlicos; e, finalmente, analisar se, e de que forma, a aprendizagem metalinguÃstica do sistema fonolÃgico da LI auxiliaria esses professores em formaÃÃo a monitorar sua pronÃncia, tanto em atividades controladas durante a disciplina de Fonologia Segmental da LÃngua Inglesa (foco na produÃÃo dos sons) como em atividades mais livres em disciplinas subsequentes (foco na produÃÃo de mensagem), principalmente apÃs decorrido um certo espaÃo de tempo entre a instruÃÃo explÃcita e a atividade de produÃÃo espontÃnea. Como base teÃrica para tais objetivos, usamos o modelo de processamento da informaÃÃo de Barry McLaughlin (1983), o modelo de aprendizagem da fala (FLEGE, 1995) e o modelo de assimilaÃÃo perceptual (BEST, 1995), a teoria do monitor de Krashen (1972), alÃm de tentarmos relacionar esses conceitos aplicados ao EAD. Para alcance dos objetivos mencionados, coletamos e analisamos atividades de portfÃlio gravadas por 29 (vinte e nove) professores em formaÃÃo do curso semipresencial de Letras/InglÃs da UFC/UAB, durante as disciplinas de Fonologia Segmental da LI, com foco na produÃÃo de sons, e LÃngua Inglesa V-A: CompreensÃo e ProduÃÃo Oral, com foco na produÃÃo de mensagem. Nossos resultados foram os seguintes: os problemas mais recorrentes em relaÃÃo à produÃÃo oral dos sons vocÃlicos pelos professores em formaÃÃo se referem à substituiÃÃo imprÃpria de sons, seja pela nÃo percepÃÃo de certos sons da LI que nÃo existem no PB, seja pela influÃncia grafo-fonÃmica das palavras na pronÃncia dos aprendizes; quanto ao nÃvel de percepÃÃo dos aprendizes em relaÃÃo aos seus problemas de pronÃncia, podemos dizer que muitos desvios de produÃÃo oral foram percebidos e corrigidos de maneira a sugerir que o automonitoramento foi ativado pela instruÃÃo explÃcita; à medida que adquiriram conhecimento explÃcito em Fonologia, os professores em formaÃÃo foram capazes de identificar e corrigir seus problemas de pronÃncia; e, apÃs decorrido certo tempo da instruÃÃo explÃcita, os participantes da pesquisa mantiveram um nÃvel de 70% (setenta por cento) em acurÃcia na produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos da LI, quando o foco da atividade era a produÃÃo de mensagem e nÃo somente de sons. Tais resultados nos levam a atestar a afirmaÃÃo de que a instruÃÃo explÃcita em Fonologia pode auxiliar no desenvolvimento do automonitoramento, e assim, na otimizaÃÃo da produÃÃo oral. AlÃm disso, tambÃm podemos sugerir que o efeito da instruÃÃo explÃcita na produÃÃo oral à durÃvel. / Esse trabalho teve por objetivo, investigar se, e de que maneira, o conhecimento metalinguÃstico do sistema fonolÃgico da LI influi no nÃvel de acurÃcia da produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos de professores de inglÃs em formaÃÃo e como este conhecimento lhes possibilita a melhor monitorar sua pronÃncia. Mais especificamente, buscÃvamos: identificar os problemas de produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos do inglÃs apresentados por aprendizes dessa lÃngua; investigar o nÃvel de percepÃÃo dos professores de inglÃs em formaÃÃo acerca de seus problemas na produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos da LI; analisar se, à medida que os professores em formaÃÃo adquirem conhecimento metalinguÃstico sobre o sistema fonolÃgico da LI durante a disciplina Fonologia da LÃngua Inglesa, passaram a identificar com mais precisÃo seus problemas/dificuldades de pronÃncia dos fonemas vocÃlicos; e, finalmente, analisar se, e de que forma, a aprendizagem metalinguÃstica do sistema fonolÃgico da LI auxiliaria esses professores em formaÃÃo a monitorar sua pronÃncia, tanto em atividades controladas durante a disciplina de Fonologia Segmental da LÃngua Inglesa (foco na produÃÃo dos sons) como em atividades mais livres em disciplinas subsequentes (foco na produÃÃo de mensagem), principalmente apÃs decorrido um certo espaÃo de tempo entre a instruÃÃo explÃcita e a atividade de produÃÃo espontÃnea. Como base teÃrica para tais objetivos, usamos o modelo de processamento da informaÃÃo de Barry McLaughlin (1983), o modelo de aprendizagem da fala (FLEGE, 1995) e o modelo de assimilaÃÃo perceptual (BEST, 1995), a teoria do monitor de Krashen (1972), alÃm de tentarmos relacionar esses conceitos aplicados ao EAD. Para alcance dos objetivos mencionados, coletamos e analisamos atividades de portfÃlio gravadas por 29 (vinte e nove) professores em formaÃÃo do curso semipresencial de Letras/InglÃs da UFC/UAB, durante as disciplinas de Fonologia Segmental da LI, com foco na produÃÃo de sons, e LÃngua Inglesa V-A: CompreensÃo e ProduÃÃo Oral, com foco na produÃÃo de mensagem. Nossos resultados foram os seguintes: os problemas mais recorrentes em relaÃÃo à produÃÃo oral dos sons vocÃlicos pelos professores em formaÃÃo se referem à substituiÃÃo imprÃpria de sons, seja pela nÃo percepÃÃo de certos sons da LI que nÃo existem no PB, seja pela influÃncia grafo-fonÃmica das palavras na pronÃncia dos aprendizes; quanto ao nÃvel de percepÃÃo dos aprendizes em relaÃÃo aos seus problemas de pronÃncia, podemos dizer que muitos desvios de produÃÃo oral foram percebidos e corrigidos de maneira a sugerir que o automonitoramento foi ativado pela instruÃÃo explÃcita; à medida que adquiriram conhecimento explÃcito em Fonologia, os professores em formaÃÃo foram capazes de identificar e corrigir seus problemas de pronÃncia; e, apÃs decorrido certo tempo da instruÃÃo explÃcita, os participantes da pesquisa mantiveram um nÃvel de 70% (setenta por cento) em acurÃcia na produÃÃo dos sons vocÃlicos da LI, quando o foco da atividade era a produÃÃo de mensagem e nÃo somente de sons. Tais resultados nos levam a atestar a afirmaÃÃo de que a instruÃÃo explÃcita em Fonologia pode auxiliar no desenvolvimento do automonitoramento, e assim, na otimizaÃÃo da produÃÃo oral. AlÃm disso, tambÃm podemos sugerir que o efeito da instruÃÃo explÃcita na produÃÃo oral à durÃvel. / The purpose of this study was to investigate if, and how, the metalinguistic knowledge of the phonological system of the English language affects the level of accuracy of the production of English vowel sounds by prospective teachers of English and how this knowledge enables them to monitor their own pronunciation. Specifically, the study attempted to: identify the problems English learners have when pronouncing vowel phonemes in English; investigate the level of perception the prospective teachers of English have concerning their own difficulties and problems in producing vowel sounds; analyze if the prospective teachers of English begin to more precisely identify their own problems/difficulties in the production of the vowel phonemes once they gain metalinguistic knowledge about the phonological system of English while taking the course English Language Phonology; and, finally, analyze if, and how, the metalinguistic learning of the phonological system of English helps learners to monitor their pronunciation in both controlled activities in the course English Segmental Phonology (focussing on the production of sounds) and less controlled activities in courses which focus on communicating messages, especially after a time gap between the instructed learning and spontaneous communicative production. This study is theoretically supported by McLaughlinâs Model of Information Processing (1983), Fledgeâs Model of Speech Acquisition (1995), Bestâs Perceptual Assimilation Model (1995), Krashenâs Monitor Hypothesis (1972), and other works which attempt to apply models of learning and of language acquisition to distance learning. In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, portfolio activities recorded by 29 (twenty nine) prospective English teachers of the Distance English Teaching Certificate Program, at UFC-UAB, were collected while the learners were taking the following courses: English Segmental Phonology, which focuses on the production of sounds of the language, and English V: Oral Comprehension and Production, which focuses on communicating messages. An analysis of the recordings indicated: i) the most recurrent problems in the production of oral sounds result from the improper substitution of English sounds for Portuguese sounds, either because students donât perceive their distinction or because they are influenced by the graphonemic spelling of word; ii) the students were able to perceive and correct their own pronunciation problems, which suggests that instruction on the phonological system of English allowed the students to activate and use self-monitoring strategies; iii) as the students learned about the phonology of English, they began to identify and correct their own pronunciation problems; and iv) after some time of having taken the Phonology Course, students were able to identify and correct their pronunciation problems, maintaining a 70% level of accuracy in the production of the oral sounds, even in activities which focus was not on the production of the sounds but on message communication. These results suggest that metalinguistic instruction on the phonological system of English can be helpful in the development of self-monitoring strategies and, therefore, optimize the production of oral sounds in a foreign language. The long-lasting effect of metalinguistic knowledge of phonology in the pronunciation of English can also be implied. / The purpose of this study was to investigate if, and how, the metalinguistic knowledge of the phonological system of the English language affects the level of accuracy of the production of English vowel sounds by prospective teachers of English and how this knowledge enables them to monitor their own pronunciation. Specifically, the study attempted to: identify the problems English learners have when pronouncing vowel phonemes in English; investigate the level of perception the prospective teachers of English have concerning their own difficulties and problems in producing vowel sounds; analyze if the prospective teachers of English begin to more precisely identify their own problems/difficulties in the production of the vowel phonemes once they gain metalinguistic knowledge about the phonological system of English while taking the course English Language Phonology; and, finally, analyze if, and how, the metalinguistic learning of the phonological system of English helps learners to monitor their pronunciation in both controlled activities in the course English Segmental Phonology (focussing on the production of sounds) and less controlled activities in courses which focus on communicating messages, especially after a time gap between the instructed learning and spontaneous communicative production. This study is theoretically supported by McLaughlinâs Model of Information Processing (1983), Fledgeâs Model of Speech Acquisition (1995), Bestâs Perceptual Assimilation Model (1995), Krashenâs Monitor Hypothesis (1972), and other works which attempt to apply models of learning and of language acquisition to distance learning. In order to achieve the above mentioned objectives, portfolio activities recorded by 29 (twenty nine) prospective English teachers of the Distance English Teaching Certificate Program, at UFC-UAB, were collected while the learners were taking the following courses: English Segmental Phonology, which focuses on the production of sounds of the language, and English V: Oral Comprehension and Production, which focuses on communicating messages. An analysis of the recordings indicated: i) the most recurrent problems in the production of oral sounds result from the improper substitution of English sounds for Portuguese sounds, either because students donât perceive their distinction or because they are influenced by the graphonemic spelling of word; ii) the students were able to perceive and correct their own pronunciation problems, which suggests that instruction on the phonological system of English allowed the students to activate and use self-monitoring strategies; iii) as the students learned about the phonology of English, they began to identify and correct their own pronunciation problems; and iv) after some time of having taken the Phonology Course, students were able to identify and correct their pronunciation problems, maintaining a 70% level of accuracy in the production of the oral sounds, even in activities which focus was not on the production of the sounds but on message communication. These results suggest that metalinguistic instruction on the phonological system of English can be helpful in the development of self-monitoring strategies and, therefore, optimize the production of oral sounds in a foreign language. The long-lasting effect of metalinguistic knowledge of phonology in the pronunciation of English can also be implied.

Mitigation is the modification of language in response to social or cognitive challenges (stressors) in contexts of linguistic interaction (Martinovski, Mao, Gratch, & Marsella 2005). Previous mitigation research has been largely from social perspectives, addressing the word or utterance levels of language. This dissertation presents an empirical study of mitigating language resulting from both a cognitive stressor (degree of uncertainty) and social stressor (degree of imposition) in Spanish discourse, and the impacts of mitigation on interaction and interlocutors. The tripartite approach includes a: (1) quantitative analysis of discourse markers associated with mitigation (speaker-discourse, speaker-listener, and epistemic markers); (2) qualitative discourse analysis, relying on concepts from the Conversation Analysis framework; and (3) qualitative analysis of interlocutors’ perceptions of mitigation, using metalinguistic conversations. The results are discussed considering prior research on mitigation, politeness theories, and Clark’s (2006) model of ‘language use’ to address information types, interlocutor roles, and mutual knowledge. In addition, Caffi and Janney’s (1994) ‘anticipatory schemata’ and Pinker’s (2007) social psychological perspective of indirect language inform the theoretical framework. Results indicate that: (1) Mitigation devices vary depending on contextual factors prompting mitigation, significantly fewer speaker-listener markers are shown as evidence of mitigation, and epistemic markers, which are commonly analyzed mitigation devices, are infrequent overall in these data. These results provide evidence against the assumption that mitigation is associated with increased use of linguistic devices; (2) Two mitigating discourse structures were found, depending on the degree of uncertainty. Within contexts of high-imposition, the Co-reconstruction structure (CRS) is found in contexts with uncertainty and the Non-linear structure (NLS) is in contexts with certainty; and (3) The listeners’ metalinguistic comments indicate that the CRS, compared to the NLS, is preferred. Also, the results indicate how interlocutors address cognitive, social, and emotional stressors in interaction. Considering all analyses, a unifying definition of mitigation in discourse is provided. This phenomenon is characterized as the postponement of both confirmed knowledge and negotiation of the interlocutor relationship. This research contributes the first experimental investigation of mitigation as the result of cognitive and social stressors, and also the first systematic analysis of mitigation in Spanish discourse. / text

Notre étude porte sur l’observation de connaissances linguistiques et métalinguistiques chez les adultes francophones apprenant l’Espagnol Langue Étrangère (ELE). Ces connaissances constituent la compétence grammaticale que les apprenants construisent au fur et à mesure qu’ils s’approprient la L2.Dans le but d’observer ces connaissances au stade intermédiaire d’apprentissage — c’est-à-dire au niveau seuil (B1) établi par le Cadre Commun de Référence pour les Langues (Conseil de l’Europe, 2001) —, nous avons procédé à une étude expérimentale auprès de 30 adultes francophones. Notre démarche comporte 2 tâches d’expérimentation : une tâche de décision et une tâche de production orale. La tâche de décision repose sur un test de jugement de grammaticalité : on demande aux participants d’évaluer, dans un temps limité, un corpus des phrases (exposées les unes après les autres, à la fois à l’écrit et à l’oral) dont certaines contenaient une erreur. Le corpus de phrases présenté à nouveau sur papier, on demande ensuite aux participants de donner un jugement définitif (sans mesure de temps de réponse), à partir duquel, s’ils jugent une phrase incorrecte, ils doivent indiquer où se situe l’erreur et l’expliquer. Quant à la tâche de production orale, il a été demandé aux participants de produire un discours descriptif et narratif en L2 espagnol à l’aide d’un stimulus visuel (bande dessinée). Les résultats de nos tâches expérimentales nous ont permis de recueillir des données sur le temps de réponse, sur la capacité de jugement de phrases, sur le type de discours employé pour expliquer l’erreur et sur les structures syntaxiques utilisées spontanément en production orale.Ces données sont analysées et discutées en vue de fournir des pistes sur la capacité des adultes francophones apprenant l’ELE à détecter des erreurs en langue cible et à en expliciter les règles transgressées ; sur les problèmes qu’ils retrouvent dans leur appropriation du système grammatical de l’espagnol ; et sur les connaissances dont ils se servent pour analyser et produire les structures de la langue objet. En outre, les résultats obtenus nous permettent à notre tour d’envisager autrement l’apprentissage de la grammaire de l’espagnol et d’avancer la perspective d’un modèle d’enseignement adapté aux capacités métacognitives et métalinguistiques de l’apprenant francophone. / The framework of our study is focused on the assessment of linguistic and metalinguistic knowledge of francophone adults learning Spanish as a foreign language. This knowledge constitutes the basis of grammatical competence built by learners as they develop skills in the target language.Our aim is the observation of linguistic and metalinguistic knowledge used by francophone adult learners of Spanish as a second language (L2). Thus, we designed and directed an experimental study to 30 French-speakers with a threshold-level in Spanish, based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). Our approach consisted of two experimental tasks: A decision making task and a task of oral production. The first task was conducted with a grammaticality judgement test in which participants had to evaluate, in a limited response time, a corpus of 36 sentences (presented one after the other, at both written and oral). The second task was conducted with the definitive confirmation of judgments about the corpus. Participants were thus asked to give a final judgement about the correctness of sentences (without measuring response time). If they judged a sentence as incorrect, they have to specify the error and explain it. As for the oral production task, the participants were asked to produce a descriptive and narrative speech in Spanish by using visual stimuli (a comic strip). The results achieved allowed us to collect data on the response time, on the sentences judgment ability, on the type of speech used to explain the error and on syntactical structures used spontaneously in oral speech. Those data were analyzed and discussed with the aim of providing insights on the capacity of francophone adults learning Spanish as a foreign language for detecting and explaining errors in the target language; on their difficulties in acquiring the Spanish grammatical system; and on their knowledge to analyze and produce structures in target language.The results enabled us to reconsider the learning of Spanish grammar otherwise with a view to teaching models adapted to the metacognitive and metalinguistic skills of francophone learners.

This study examined whether metalinguistic frequency increases or utterance type changes with age in children with typical language. Overt metalinguistic productions of 32 children, 3;0-5;7, were collected during recast intervention. Overall, the data showed changes in frequency and proportion of types with age.

Introduction. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the frequency of overt metalinguistic utterances increases and types change with age in children with typically developing language. Metalinguistic awareness refers to the conscious and deliberate ability to manipulate and reflect upon language properties. Development of metalinguistic awareness is an indicator of future reading skills, but little is known about its development in preschool children. Spontaneous, overt metalinguistic utterances are rare and tasks developed to assess metalinguistic sills are too complex for young children. This study is unique in the number of overt metalinguistic utterance it elicited in young children. It was hypothesized that the metalinguistic utterance rate would increase with age and that types would change. Methods. Thirty-two children ages 3:0-5:11 were exposed to irregular verb forms of nonsense words (e.g., dake- doke) through recast intervention, which involves quick corrections of children's grammar by adults during conversation. Language samples of the intervention sessions were digitally recorded and then coded for the presence and type of metalinguistic utterances, including: challenges, rehearsals, requests for clarification, self-corrections and self-statements. Twenty percent of the language samples were randomly selected and independently coded for reliability. Results. Thirty-one of the 32 children produced at least one metalinguistic utterance. The 5-year-olds produced a higher rate per minute of metalinguistic utterances than the 3-year-olds. The 5-year-olds produced a significantly higher rates of challenges than any other type of metalinguistic utterance than any other group, except the 3 and 4-year-olds' rates of self-correction. The increased rate with age and observed trends in the use of metalinguistic types generally supported a theoretical model of developmental emergence.

This dissertation reports on an investigation of corrective feedback provided by instructors to learners in sixteen online asynchronous and synchronous interactions. The overarching objective of this study was to examine the provision of corrective feedback in computer-mediated communication (CMC) environments. This study also sought to examine the frequency of corrective feedback types and the relationship between learner error and corrective feedback provision. Finally, this study investigated what types of corrective feedback led to repaired learner responses.Over the course of one university semester, the instructors and students in four second-semester Spanish courses participated in bulletin board and chat room discussions and a detailed analysis of the transcripts revealed that instructors do provide learners with corrective feedback in online asynchronous and synchronous environments. The results also reveal that corrective feedback is more prevalent in the asynchronous environment than in the synchronous environment. A total of six corrective feedback typesexplicit correction, recasts, metalinguistic feedback, clarification request, elicitation, and repetitionwere found in these environments. All corrective feedback types were present in the asynchronous environment while repetition was not observed in the synchronous environment. The results indicate instructors overall preference for explicit correction in the asynchronous environment and preference for recasts in the synchronous environment. In the synchronous environment, different types of learner errors are followed by different types of corrective feedback. Recasts most often follow grammatical and lexical errors, while an opportunity to negotiate form is most often provided for multiple errors.

Dialektal medvetenhet är en förmåga som grundas i en metaspråklig förmåga, det vill säga att kunna resonera kring språk och hantera språkliga enheter. Exempel på detta är att med hjälp av prosodi kunna utläsa information i tal såsom känslor och dialekter. Det finns relativt lite forskning angående barns dialektala medvetenhet. Däremot finns mer forskning inom metaspråklig utveckling. En god metaspråklig förmåga hör samman med god generell språkutveckling och en metaspråklig kompetens innebär ett senare stadium av språkutveckling. Resultat från tidigare studier har visat att metaspråklig förmåga börjar utvecklas vid en ålder av cirka fem år vad gäller bland annat intonation och dialektrelaterat tal. I föreliggande studie konstruerades ett testbatteri för att kartlägga dialektal medvetenhet i åldrarna fem till tolv år. I studien deltog tre åldersgrupper, 5-, 8- och 11-åringar, med tio barn i respektive åldersgrupp. Testet är uppbyggt i tre delar som undersöker olika aspekter av dialektal medvetenhet. Studien är genomförd i Östergötland med barn som förväntas identifiera sig med östgötsk dialekt. Resultatet i föreliggande studie bekräftar att viss metaspråklig kunskap finns etablerad hos de femåriga barnen och att det sker en gradvis ökning i utvecklingen mellan åldrarna vad gäller att kunna avgöra om två personer låter som att de kommer från samma region. En liknande ökning av metaspråklig utveckling finns mellan respektive åldersgrupp och visas i barnens sätt att resonera kring olika sätt att tala. Föreliggande studies resultat visar även att barnen vid åtta år uppnått en god förmåga att urskilja sitt eget sätt att tala bland andra regionsdialekter, dock påvisas ingen ytterligare ökning av denna förmåga vid elva års ålder. / Awareness of accents is an ability derived from metalinguistic skills, which includes being able to reason about language and being able to handle small language units. An example of this may be to be able to use prosodic features in order to understand expressions of feelings and regional accents. There is not much research regarding regional accent awareness in Swedish children. There is, on the other hand, more research available about metalinguistic ability in children. Metalinguistic ability is associated with a more advanced language development in general, which means that metalinguistic capacity belongs to a latter phase of language development. Results from recent research have shown that metalinguistic ability starts to develop by the age of five regarding intonation and regional accents. The present study has produced a test battery to survey accent awareness in the ages five to twelve years. In the study participated three age groups of 5, 8 and 11 years with ten children from each age group. The test comprises three parts that investigate different aspects of awareness of Swedish regional accents. The study is carried out in Östergötland in Sweden, with children expected to identify themself with the Swedish regional accent Östgötska. The results of the present study confirm that certain metalinguistic knowledge is established by the age of five and that there is a gradual development between the age groups regarding the ability to decide if two persons sound like they are coming from the same region.  A similar gradual development of metalinguistic awareness in respective ages is shown in the children’s way to reason about different ways to talk. The results of the present study also indicate that children by an age of eight have achieved the ability to distinguish their own way of talking among other regional accents. No further development of this ability by the age of eleven is demonstrated.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-09-13T11:36:38Z No. of bitstreams: 1 carolinaferreiraconti.pdf: 403777 bytes, checksum: 837be86281a1d25d8ff7071f67ab294a (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Diamantino Mayra (mayra.diamantino@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-09-13T12:49:03Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 carolinaferreiraconti.pdf: 403777 bytes, checksum: 837be86281a1d25d8ff7071f67ab294a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-13T12:49:03Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 carolinaferreiraconti.pdf: 403777 bytes, checksum: 837be86281a1d25d8ff7071f67ab294a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-03-05 / Estudar a aprendizagem da escrita é importante para promover meios adicionais capazes de facilitar este processo, além de criar novos recursos para lidar com as dificuldades de aprendizagem. Nesse sentido, estudos recentes tem investigado o papel das habilidades metalingüísticas, como a consciência fonológica e a consciência morfológica, no aprendizado da escrita. O presente estudo teve dois objetivos: investigar se a escrita de diferentes tipos de palavras está associada a diferentes habilidades metalinguísticas; investigar se existe um desenvolvimento nas estratégias de escrita. Participaram 132 crianças, de ambos os sexo e entre 6 e 11 anos de idade, regularmente matriculadas em 3 escolas públicas da cidade de Juiz de Fora. Desses estudantes 30 (22,7%) crianças freqüentavam o segundo ano, 51 (38,6%) o terceiro ano e 51 (38,6%) o quarto ano. Para avaliar a consciência fonológica e morfológica foram utilizados respectivamente o Roteiro de avaliação de consciência fonológica (Santos, 1996) e as tarefas de Analogia Gramatical - Morfologia Flexional (Mota, 1996 adaptada de Nunes, Bidman & Bryant, 1997) e Derivacional (adaptada de Nunes, Bidman & Bryant, 1997). As habilidade de codificação ortográfica foram testadas mediante o ditado experimental de palavras (adaptada de Correa, 2008), que continha palavras regulares, palavras com regras contextuais, palavras com regras morfossintáticas e palavras cuja morfologia é ambígua, além do TDE: subteste de escrita, para medida de escrita de palavras isoladas. Também foi utilizado o WISC III: subteste de dígitos como medida de controle. Foi possível perceber que a escrita está associada tanto a habilidade de consciência fonológica como também, deforma mais restrita, à habilidade de consciência morfológica. Essas análises permitem constatar que no Português do Brasil, tanto a consciência fonológica como a morfológica são recursos importantes para a escrita. Além disso, pode-se verificar que com o avanço na escolarização as crianças se apropriam de diferentes regras ortográficas que compõe a língua portuguesa. / Studying reading and writing comprehension is important both to promote additional means that facilitate this process and to provide new resources in order to cope with the difficulties in learning. Recent studies have investigated the role of metalinguistic abilities in reading and writing comprehension. Among the abilities within the metalinguistic awareness are the phonologic and morphologic awareness. The phonologic awareness can be defined as the ability to reflect upon the sounds that compose speech, while the morphologic awareness is the ability to reflect upon the morphemes that compose words and attribute meaning to them. Research in this area indicates that both abilities contribute to the acquisition and development of reading and writing. The current study has two goals: verify if the writing of different types of words is associated with different metalinguistic abilities; verify if there is a development in writing strategies. To this, it was carried out a research involving 132 regularly enrolled children in three public schools of Juiz de Fora between second and forth year. The tasks undertaken evaluated the phonologic and morphologic awareness, orthographic coding ability, writing ability and verbal memory. It was possible to see that writing is associated with both the phonologic awareness ability as well as, to a lesser degree, the morphologic awareness ability. Furthermore, it can be seen that with the advance of schooling, children acquire diffrent orthographic rules that compose the portuguese language.

This study investigated the different types of errors that EFL learners produce in chat logs and also analyzed the different types of corrective feedback given by the teacher. An eye tracker was employed to study the eye movements of the participants to see how they notice the corrective feedback. This investigation can assist teachers to act better in online classrooms and helps them understand which type of corrective feedback is most likely to result in uptake based on noticing. The results showed that the most common errors in chat logs were related to grammar. It was also found that both recasts and metalinguistic feedback were noticed most of the time during the chat sessions although only a few of them led to uptake in post task session.

The goal I have pursued in writing this dissertation has been to provide the most complete account that I could manage of the various aspects of language that can be labelled metalinguistic, both in the language-system and in discourse. On a rough characterisation, metalanguage is language about language. Since I understand language both as a ‘potential’ (the language-system) and as its actualisation (language as discourse), there are theoretically four situations that can be subsumed under the term ‘metalanguage’: 1. there are lexical items (units in the system) that denote aspects of the system (preposition, noun, conjugation, plural, etc.); 2. there are items that denote elements of discourse (words and phrases like the aforementioned, the latter, etc.). At the same time, there are 3. utterances about the system (e.g. ‘Boston’ is a noun), and 4. utterances about discourse (i.e. about other utterances or parts of utterances, e.g. The old cow said teddible instead of terrible). In both 3 and 4, we have words that reflexively mention linguistic sequences. Following Rey-Debove, I have chosen to call these ‘autonyms’.Note also that discourse about language can be combined with discourse about extralinguistic reality. An utterance about a situation in the world can secondarily say something, for example, about language use; such is the case in The U.S. advocates ‘military action’, as newspapermen call it now, where a comment about a euphemism is appended to a statement about ‘the world’.All in all, this amounts to a fairly large body of data that is varied in kind. My goal has been to bring some order to this variegated set, to highlight in what respects its elements are similar and dissimilar. Thus, I have sought to sort out a number of issues that had not, as far as I could judge, been treated satisfactorily on previous occasions, and to make my descriptions compatible with the theory that was gradually taking shape. In particular, I have underlined the strong connections between the system-level aspects of metalanguage and its discourse manifestations, and I have been led to suggest that the latter ‘leak into’ the system. Besides, I have tried to give a more thorough account of certain properties of metalinguistic discourse, notably the recursiveness of mention or quotation, and its referential diversity. When I felt that I had come to an adequate account of metalinguistic discourse, I have attempted to supply a typology of its various manifestations that would integrate most of the criteria brought up in previous attempts. In the final part of the dissertation, I have brought together what I regard as a series of genuine challenges to the best existing theories of metalinguistic discourse, and have attempted to frame what possible solutions could be.THINGS IN SENTENCES, INFINITE LEXICON? P-ÊÊ UNE CODA APRÈS RECA + CHAPTER 8***The very notion of metalanguage originated in formal logic in the first half of the 20th c. Soon, some of the concepts developed by logicians were taken over by philosophers of language (and subsequently by a few linguists). That was notably the case with the distinction between the use and the mention of a linguistic sequence; use designating the ordinary, transparent, employment of an expression to denote something outside language and mention its being chosen as a topic for discussion. When the subject came under the scrutiny of philosophers of language, the essentially prescriptive approach of the logician (the logician decreed which features his languages and metalanguages should possess), was turned into an attempt at describing actual linguistic mechanisms. It is in this tradition that I situate myself.Philosophers of language have turned out to be particularly interested in quotation (the mention of linguistic expressions), but I have thought it useful to introduce a term that covered not just quotation, but also mention-without-quote-marks, as well as hybrid cases like example 5. This term is reflexive metalinguistic demonstration, but for convenience’ sake I shall make do with metalinguistic demonstration.In Chapter 2, I have examined in detail the main theories of metalinguistic demonstration put forward in the course of the 20th c. namely the Name, Description, Demonstrative and Identity theories. In the process, I have been able to gradually identify the various properties of metalinguistic demonstrations that should be regarded as essential. And I have also formed a clearer idea of the body of data that a theory should be able to account for. In the end, I have been able to outline what I believe is a sound theory of metalinguistic demonstrations. This theory is chiefly informed by the proposals of François Recanati (2000, 2001), supplemented with insights of Paul Saka (1998), both of whom are indebted to the Demonstrative and Identity accounts.My reasons for using Recanati (2001) as the backbone of my own theory are the following. Recanati has successfully drawn the line between two types of meaning conveyed by metalinguistic demonstrations, namely ‘pictorial’ and ‘conventional linguistic’ meaning, something that had not been done with that clarity before. Besides, he has had the wisdom to give up the standard assumption that all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential, an assumption that inevitably led to theoretical dead ends. Moreover, drawing on the first two insights, Recanati has also separated out the syntactic and pragmatic aspects that were often confused in previous approaches.There is no doubt that the theory put forward by Recanati in 2001 is the most empirically adequate that can be found in the literature. Besides, it also accounts for an impressive range of key properties. Still, there are two interesting properties that received very little attention from Recanati, that is, referential diversity and recursiveness. Though Paul Saka has argued in favour of both in a 1998 paper, I believe his defence to have been somewhat clumsy. And therefore I have tried to offer more convincing evidence in favour of these properties.Let’s start with ReferenceAs Recanati has shown, not all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential expressions. But there is one aspect of reference that he says very little about: the sort or sorts of referents that a referential autonym can have. The theory implicitly suggests that autonyms can only refer to types. (Many writers have claimed more robustly and more explicitlythat there was only one sort of referents for autonyms, always either types or classes of tokens).I hold this view to be incorrect. As I’ve indicated in Chapter 4 of the thesis, I believe that several sorts of referents must be distinguished. Let us have a few examples:Run is a verbRun has three lettersShe said, “I ain’t EVER gonna tell ya”The first refers to a lexeme, since the predicate applies to runs, ran, running, as well.The second, only to a form (since not true of running or runs).Both could still be said to be abstract objects, and one might wish to call these ‘types’.The third, however, well and truly seems to refer to a token, the particular utterance produced by the woman behind she, witness the mimicry involved in the direct speech report.In my discussion of the next property, I offer a further argument in favour of referential diversity.2. Metalinguistic demonstrations can be iterated (repeated), a property usually described as recursiveness, and which has given rise to some controversies. Some demonstrativists, notably Cappelen & Lepore, because they hold the interior of a quotation to be semantically inert, have rejected the idea of recursiveness. I think, however, that their rejection comes from their failure to discern several types of recursiveness. In my dissertation, I have distinguished three; I shall only sketch two here.“ ‘Boston’ ” is an autonym.Typographical recursiveness: hardly very interesting, since it is a mechanical operation that can be repeated at will.The next pair of examples throws a more interesting light on the matter:‘Boston’ is a six-letter word.In each utterance of the previous example, “ ‘Boston’ ” is used to refer to an orthographic formBoston enclosed in two pairs of quote marks refers to particular tokens of Boston in a single pair of quote marks, as are produced when uttering a token of the first sentence, ‘Boston’ is a six-letter word. In each utterance of that sentence, the subject, ‘Boston’, itself refers, this time to the name Boston. This means that we have a situation in which an autonym refers to another autonym which also refers: reference here is iterated.This is actually no problem for the assumption of the inertness of the interior of the quotation, because reference is directed outwards: the interior of the quotation itself (the token displayed) remains inert. Note that referential recursiveness is only possible when one has a meta-quotation that refers to a token that is itself a referential autonym. This confirms the need for the theory to accommodate reference to particular tokens.I have made further use of the theory of metalinguistic demonstrations in Chapter 6 of the thesis, which is devoted to sketching a typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. In this connection, I have tried to bring together different types of discriminating factors that had been used in previous classifications (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, typographical, lexical). These did not seem to be compatible from the outset, but then I realised that they might perhaps all be integrated into a single typology if I adopted an interpreter’s perspective. I reflected that that perspective provided a criterion for determining which characteristics of metalinguistic demonstrations would count as relevant variables for a typology: only those that made a ‘difference for the interpreter’ (i.e. affected his/her interpretative processes) would be retained.I also took advanatge of the general theory for the interpretation of utterances that has been set out in some recent publications, notably by Bach and Recanati (and which I outline in Chapter 3 of the thesis), and eventually reached what I regard as a decent result. Moreover, I also made a couple of interesting discoveries. The first one is that quite a bit of the interpretation of an utterance takes place at a ‘pre-interpretative’ level, that is, befor a sentence has been clearly identified (disambiguated). In particular, there are significant pictorial aspects of metalinguistic demonstrations that enter into the disambiguation process rather than into interpretation proper. The second one is that there is an impressive number of aspects of meaning that are linked to the speaker’s intentions, and should theoretically require access to the wide context of an utterance to be processed, that can be accessed at very low (semantic) levels of interpretation.In the final part of this presentation, I wish to examine a couple of instances of hybridity that face the theory with a more serious challenge than example 5 on the first slide. That example was easily explained in terms of simultaneous use and mention (the standard account in the literature): the same sequence, military action, was used ordinarily and, secondarily, demonstrated as being a particular form of euphemism. Other hybrids, on the other hand, do not lend themselves to such an analysis in a straightforward way. The first example I wish to bring up raises an interesting problem in connection with the notion of grammaticality:Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.This can be rewritten as a pair of sentences, one for use the other for mention. We get:Use :Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as volontiers professeur de moi-même.Mention :Robbe-Grillet uses the expression “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.Although the mention line raises no special issues, there are great doubts as to the grammaticality of the ordinary-use line: a language-shift occurs in the middle of the sentence, and is not signalled by any marker, unlike in the initial hybrid. Though Recanati’s framework allows for language-shifts, and could therefore be relied on to argue that the correct interpretation can be ascribed to the French words in the example, it does not state rules determining at which spot in an utterance such a shift is acceptable grammatically. In other words, it says nothing about the possibility of a grammar that would straddle English and French. Fortunately, the idea of such grammars is supported by the limited research that has been carried out about code-switching. So, there may be theoretical backing for the assumption that the use line may after all be grammatical (with respect to a hybrid grammar).Note that these remarks are valid, I believe, not just for the use line of the twofold paraphrase, but for the initial hybrid too. Indeed, it is not clear — though some would be ready to say so — that the presence of quote marks is enough to alter the grammaticality of an utterance.Note also that an example like the previous one is a reminder of an essential fact about the work of language scholars: they start out to describe and/or explain some empirical data they find significant. But as things get more complicated, they must continually make decisions as to what must be acknowledged as relevant data for their research. Every step of the way, there may be a temptation to dismiss data — in the present case, on grounds of ungrammaticality — because these data threaten the validity of the theory being devised. Here, thanks to an analogy with grammatical accounts of code-switching, a case can be made for the grammaticality of utterances like the one under consideration. It is these kinds of extensions that broaden the linguist’s horizons and make research worthwhile.The second example I wish to examine raises interesting issues concerning iconicity. Though I have said nothing about it so far, iconicity is perhaps the single most important notion in any discussion of metalinguistic demonstration. In a nutshell, the basic assumption about ‘how such a demonstration makes sense’ is that the tokens displayed in a mentioning utterance are iconically related to the target of the demonstration. Iconicity can initially be understood as a matter of formal resemblance (cf the first batch of examples on Slide 1). The following example shows that the notion must be made more flexble than that:Descartes said that man “is a thinking substance”.Use: Descartes said that man is a thinking substance.Mention: Descartes said “is a thinking substance”.It can be seen that the mention line of the paraphrase is truth-conditionally incorrect: Descartes did not produce a token of is a thinking substance, since he was writing in Latin, not English. What Descartes said was est res cogitans. This might be taken to imply that the relation between the English tokens displayed and the Latin target is not a matter of iconicity. I would, with several other writers, suggest another direction: There is iconicity in this example, but the concept must be understood to be flexible and adaptable to contextual constraints. I believe such a conception to be necessary if one wants to be able to account for metalinguistic demonstrations within a single explanatory framework. There are too many instances of quotations that are not supported by formal identity to maintain a rigid notion of iconicity. I have added a last example on the slideConclusionAlthough I originally aspired to a comprehensive survey of things metalinguistic, I cannot but concede that there are still multiple aspects of the reflexive use of language that need looking into. I believe, however, that I have been able to shed some light on some areas of the debate. For instance, I believe that my discussion of the recursiveness and referential diversity of autonyms goes one step further than previous discussions. In particular, I hope to have been able to show convincingly that, contrary to a widespread opinion, an autonym can refer to various object, notably individual tokens. When these results are added to an excellent theory like Recanati’s, one ends up with a powerful explanatory apparatus. Moreover, this apparatus has the added advantage that it can easily be integrated into the general theory for the interpretation of utterances which I have alluded to before.I have taken advantage of this compatibility to outline my interpreter’s typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. Whether that effort was entirely successful or not, I think it has incidentally provided an excellent testing ground for the general theory. If only in that respect, the attempt was worth a try, since it shed light on the importance of pre-interpretative processes and on the conventional encoding of aspects of meaning that are otherwise heavily dependent on speaker’s intentions.Finally, I believe that the work doen in Chapter 8 has brought to the fore a number of question that deserve to be investigated at greater length in future. There are still dark areas in the study of world/language hybrids, but there also more general questions, e.g. regarding grammaticality and iconicity that need looking into. / Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished