「隱喻」可以說是組織分析或組織研究的一種工具，當我們說「組織就像是一部設計精密的機器」，那麼我們就會認為組織應該像機器那樣透過部門分工和嚴格管理來實現效率的目標；如果我們認為「組織就像是具有生命力的有機體」，那麼我們就會將注目的焦點放在組織與其環境間的互動關係；從組織理論的剖析當中，我們不難發現這些隱喻所移留的痕跡。 　　本文的研究目的為：1.探討隱喻的意義，理論內涵，隱喻對我們建構概念的作用。2.探討隱喻在組織研究中的正當性，隱喻對組織分析的作用，及如何將隱喻應用到組織研究，使其成為某種可行的研究途徑。3.剖析組織理論的隱喻內涵，隱喻對這些理論所產生的影響，並試做檢討評述。 　　總的來說，雖然還沒人直接稱「組織隱喻」，很少有人認真的探討隱喻和組織研究、組織理論的關係。而本文大膽的從隱喻的釋義、組織研究的方法論和組織理論的剖析三個角度來探討，庶幾為往後的組織隱喻研究提供一種初步的認識基礎。全文共分五章，計十萬餘字。主要的研究結論為： 　　壹、隱喻的意涵。在外觀上隱喻是一種類比，在效用上可補充直敘語言的不足；隱喻更是一種意義的轉化及認知的工具；無論是在形式或內涵上，均可涵蓋其他比喻語言。我們不該將隱喻貶抑成一種修辭的技巧或工具，也不應以此界定直敘語言和隱喻語言的從屬關係；因為兩者均為語言表述的核心。從語言建構實體的觀點以及語言發展的過程來看，「凡語言皆為隱喻」，而隱喻不僅是言說的必要工具，同時也是我們建構日常生活概念體系的基礎。 　　貳、隱喻和組織研究的關係。科學研究的過程也需要透過隱喻來想像和創造，隱喻的使用在組織研究中享有其正當性的地位。組織研究的根本即為一種「隱喻式的思維」：以熟悉已知的概念來幫助瞭解陌生未知的概念。質言之，組織理論豐富多元的觀點，實為研究者運用不同隱喻、透過不同隱喻來思維的具體結果。理論建構的過程需要反思關照其所本的假定（亦即典範），隱喻在其間即擔負起啟發思維的關鍵角色。故周全的組織研究過程，應當在「典範－隱喻－解謎」的邏輯下進行，而不是侷限於驗證程序或解謎方法。隱喻觀點的組織研究正可以幫助我們解讀組織現象的多重意義。 　　參、以隱喻為基底的組織理論風貌。本文分就機器隱喻、有機體隱喻和大腦隱喻，剖析這些隱喻對理論所產生的影響，並說明其所造成的限制。

This thesis explores bodily representations in Late Iron Age Scandinavia (400–1050 AD). Non-human bodies, such as gold foil figures, and human bodies are analysed. The work starts with an examination and deconstruction of the sex/gender categories to the effect that they are considered to be of minor value for the purposes of the thesis. Three analytical concepts – masks, miniature, and metaphor – are deployed in order to interpret how and why the chosen bodies worked within their prehistoric contexts. The manipulations the figures sometimes have undergone are referred to as masking practices, discussed in Part One. It is shown that masks work and are powerful by being paradoxical; that they are vehicles for communication; and that they are, in effect, transitional objects bridging gaps that arise in continuity as a result of events such as symbolic or actual deaths. In Part Two miniaturization is discussed. Miniaturization contributes to making worlds intelligible, negotiable and communicative. Bodies in miniatures in comparison to other miniature objects are particularly potent. Taking gold foil figures under special scrutiny, it is claimed that gold, its allusions as well as its inherent properties conveyed numinosity. Consequently gold foil figures, regardless of the context, must be understood as extremely forceful agents. Part Three examines metaphorical thinking and how human and animal body parts were used in pro-creational acts, resulting in the birth of persons. However, these need not have been human, but could have been the outcomes of turning a deceased into an ancestor, iron into a steel sword, or clay into a ceramic urn, hence expanding and transforming the members of the family/household. Thus, bone in certain contexts acted as a transitional object or as a generative substance. It is concluded that the bodies of research are connected to transitions, and that the theme of transformation was one fundamental characteristic of the societies of study.

Sur fond d’incertitude radicale, les entrepreneurs ne peuvent s’en remettre à un calcul précis de rentabilité. Pour les anticipations d’investissement, ils ont recours à leurs esprits animaux, c’est-à-dire un jugement analogique instinctif sur le futur associé à une décision émotionnelle automatique par rapport à lui en fonction de motivations. La notion remonte à l’Antiquité. Elle était synonyme d’influx nerveux. Si l’on interroge les neurosciences d’aujourd’hui, ce sont les marqueurs somatiques qui l’éclairent. Nos émotions servent à arrêter la réflexion, restreindre l’espace des possibles et valoriser certaines options. Elles contribuent à l’intelligence de nos décisions. C’est l’excès, de cognition ou d’émotion, qui est à éviter. Les émotions servent également à réviser ou renforcer nos croyances. Par leur mouvement propre, elles peuvent créer des cycles, ce que nous proposons d’appeler « le paradoxe de la confiance ». Une confiance élevée prépare le terrain de la chute future. À l’inverse, une confiance basse met peu à peu en place les conditions du retournement de conjoncture. Notre travail propose une analyse du raisonnement inductif en économie, à l’origine de l’élaboration de scénarios anticipatifs. Le capital culturel et symbolique semble également orienter les esprits animaux. Notre enquête empirique établit l’existence d’un lien entre capital culturel et prise de risque. Elle dessine aussi une typologie des esprits animaux à même de saisir l’hétérogénéité des entrepreneurs. 11 familles sont dégagées, en fonction de leurs motivations, émotions, capitaux culturels, comportements d’investissement et scénarios anticipatifs privilégiés. / In a background of fundamental uncertainty, entrepreneurs cannot rely on a precise calculus of profitability. For their investment expectations, they have to lean on their animal spirits, that is an analogical, instinctive judgment about the future associated with an automatic emotional decision under the guidance of motivations. The notion traces back to the Ancient times. She was then synonymous with “nerve impulse”. Nowadays, if one probes neuroscience, it appears that somatic markers could shed some light on them. Emotions are useful to stop thoughts, restrict the states of nature and value certain options. They contribute to the intelligence of decisions. It is the excess, be it of cognition or emotion, that is detrimental. Emotions also serve to update or strengthen our beliefs. By their own momentum, they can create cycles, which I propose to dub “the confidence paradox”. When confidence is high, the terrain for the future fall is being prepared. Conversely, when it is low, little by little the conditions for a reversal are being staged. Our work proposes an analysis of inductive reasoning responsible for the elaboration of anticipative scripts. Cultural and symbolic capital also appears to come into play. Our empirical inquiry establishes a link between cultural capital and risk-taking. It outlines as well a clustering of animal spirits so as to grasp the heterogeneity of entrepreneurs. 11 different sorts are outlined and sorted by their motivations, emotions, cultural capital, investment behaviors and preferred anticipative scripts.

<p>This thesis explores bodily representations in Late Iron Age Scandinavia (400–1050 AD). Non-human bodies, such as gold foil figures, and human bodies are analysed. The work starts with an examination and deconstruction of the sex/gender categories to the effect that they are considered to be of minor value for the purposes of the thesis. Three analytical concepts – masks, miniature, and metaphor – are deployed in order to interpret how and why the chosen bodies worked within their prehistoric contexts.</p><p>The manipulations the figures sometimes have undergone are referred to as masking practices, discussed in Part One. It is shown that masks work and are powerful by being paradoxical; that they are vehicles for communication; and that they are, in effect, transitional objects bridging gaps that arise in continuity as a result of events such as symbolic or actual deaths.</p><p>In Part Two miniaturization is discussed. Miniaturization contributes to making worlds intelligible, negotiable and communicative. Bodies in miniatures in comparison to other miniature objects are particularly potent. Taking gold foil figures under special scrutiny, it is claimed that gold, its allusions as well as its inherent properties conveyed numinosity. Consequently gold foil figures, regardless of the context, must be understood as extremely forceful agents.</p><p>Part Three examines metaphorical thinking and how human and animal body parts were used in pro-creational acts, resulting in the birth of persons. However, these need not have been human, but could have been the outcomes of turning a deceased into an ancestor, iron into a steel sword, or clay into a ceramic urn, hence expanding and transforming the members of the family/household. Thus, bone in certain contexts acted as a transitional object or as a generative substance.</p><p>It is concluded that the bodies of research are connected to transitions, and that the theme of transformation was one fundamental characteristic of the societies of study.</p>

Bc. Renáta Šťastná Abstrakt v anglickém jazyce This thesis -on Archimboldo - explores the possibilities of using the technique of collage in normal teaching in primary and secondary school. The goal of the work is to introduce primary school students to the technique of collage and to awaken in them visual arts appreciation based on metaphorical thinking . In each section a presentation is made on the work of famous painters in order to: - awaken creativity and an ability to create in order to enable students to experience success with their own work - teach critical thinking and self-reflection. - become aware of the influences which motivated painters to create each work. The practical section sets out tasks undertaken and based on their findings are recommendations on how they are to be put into practice.