abstract: According to a 2016 census, eight million adults conform to a vegetarian diet within the United States, and about 50% of these adults follow a vegan diet. The census determined that plant-based diets are quickly growing in popularity particularly in young adults between the ages of 18 to 34 years. Many Americans are aware of the health benefits of a plant-based diet, however, the dietary risks associated with these diets are not well emphasized. Health concerns such as vitamin deficiencies and altered metabolism are heightened in vegetarian populations. One Particular nutrient that is commonly lacking in the vegetarian diet is vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 is found mainly in animal-derived food sources such as meat, poultry, fish, dairy, and eggs. Although some vegetarians, called lacto-ovo vegetarians, consume dairy and eggs, vegans do not consume any animal products at all. Vitamin B12 deficiency can have devastating consequences on the human body due to its role as a methylation cofactor. Metabolism, DNA replication, and cancer formation all involve methylation processes. This cross-sectional, differential study aimed to further understand the relationship between vegetarianism, vitamin B12 status, and methylation capacity in healthy adults. A group of 34 healthy adults (18 vegetarians and 16 omnivores) was recruited to analyze serum B12, homocysteine, methylmalonic acid, serum total folate, and transcobalamin II status. It was hypothesized that (1) vegetarians would have a lower vitamin B12 status, and thus, a lower methylation capacity than omnivores and that (2) low vitamin B12 status would be correlated with low methylation capacity. The data show that vegetarians did not have significantly lower vitamin B12 methylation capacity status than omnivores. Nor was vitamin B12 status correlated with methylation capacity. However, the data revealed that diet quality had a positive influence on folate status. There was also a statistical trend (p=0.08) for homocysteine reduction in participants consuming high-quality diets. The data herein suggest that methylation capacity may be impacted by the quality of diet rather than the type of diet. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Nutrition 2019

Non-invasive markers that are clinically useful for the diagnosis and monitoring of canine chronic enteropathies are scarce. The first aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of cobalamin deficiency on a cellular level in dogs with chronic gastrointestinal disease by measuring serum methylmalonic acid (MMA) concentrations. Hypocobalaminemia has been associated with a negative outcome in dogs with chronic enteropathies, but the prevalence of cellular cobalamin deficiency is unknown. The second aim of this study was to determine the utility of fecal and urinary concentrations of N-methylhistamine (NMH) as a marker of gastrointestinal inflammation and disease activity in dogs with chronic enteropathies. Serum MMA concentrations were measured in healthy control dogs to establish a reference interval, which was calculated to be 415-1,193 nmol/L. Measurement of MMA concentrations in 555 serum samples from dogs with varying cobalamin concentrations showed a significant increase (p<0.05) in dogs with hypocobalaminemia. In a prospective group of 56 dogs with chronic enteropathies, 36% had decreased serum cobalamin concentrations, five of which (9% of 56 dogs) had increased serum MMA concentrations. We conclude that hypocobalaminemia is commonly seen in dogs with chronic gastrointestinal disease, but does not always appear to be associated with cellular cobalamin deficiency. In 47 dogs with chronic enteropathies, fecal and urinary NMH concentrations were increased in 21% and 27%, respectively, indicating that mast cell degranulation plays a role in a subset of dogs with chronic enteropathies. However fecal and urinary NMH concentrations did not correlate with each other, or with the clinical activity index. Urinary NMH concentrations correlated significantly with serum CRP concentrations, and were also significantly associated with severity of duodenal mucosal inflammation (p=0.008). The lack of correlation with the clinical activity index suggests that degranulation of mast cells only plays a role in some dogs with chronic enteropathies. Also, these results suggest that NMH alone may not be a good marker for clinical disease activity in dogs with chronic enteropathies. Due to its linear association with serum CRP and severity of mucosal inflammation, urinary NMH concentrations may be a better marker of intestinal inflammation than fecal NMH concentrations.

by Lai Wai Kai. / Thesis (M.Sc.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1996. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 70-74). / Acknowledgement --- p.iv / Abstract --- p.v / Figures and Tables --- p.vii / Abbreviations used in this study --- p.ix / Contents / Chapter 1. --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Biochemistry of cobalamin --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Biological functions of cobalamin --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Causes of cobalamin deficiency --- p.4 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Significances of cobalamin deficiency --- p.7 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- Assessment of cobalamin deficiency --- p.8 / Chapter 1.2 --- Biochemistry of Methylmalonic acid (MMA) --- p.10 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Elevation of MMA in biological fluids --- p.11 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Significances of measurement of MMA --- p.11 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Methods of measurement of urinary MMA --- p.13 / Chapter 2. --- Objectives of this project --- p.16 / Chapter 3. --- Materials and Methods / Chapter 3.1 --- Study subjects --- p.18 / Chapter 3.2 --- Sample collection --- p.18 / Chapter 3.3 --- Biochemical and haematological analysis --- p.18 / Chapter 3.4 --- Measurement of urinary creatinine concentration --- p.19 / Chapter 3.5 --- Measurement of serum cobalamin concentration --- p.20. / Chapter 3.6 --- GC-MS determination of urinary MMA --- p.21 / Chapter 3.7 --- Statistical analysis --- p.24 / Chapter 4. --- Results / Chapter 4.1 --- Clinical features of subjects --- p.28 / Chapter 4.2 --- General blood analysis --- p.28 / Chapter 4.3 --- Serum cobalamin analysis --- p.30 / Chapter 4.4 --- Urinary MMA analysis --- p.33 / Chapter 4.5 --- Relationship between urinary MMA excretion and age --- p.53 / Chapter 4.6 --- Relationship between urinary MMA excretion and serum cobalamin concentrations --- p.53 / Chapter 5. --- Discussions / Chapter 5.1 --- Serum cobalamin analysis --- p.62 / Chapter 5.2 --- Urinary MMA analysis --- p.62 / Chapter 5.3 --- Relationship between urinary MMA excretion and age --- p.66 / Chapter 5.4 --- Relationship between urinary MMA excretion and serum cobalamin concentration --- p.66 / Chapter 5.5 --- Relationship between urinary MMA excretion and diet --- p.68 / Chapter 6. --- Conclusions --- p.69 / Chapter 7. --- References --- p.70

Methylmalonic aciduria results from defects in the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and from defects in the synthesis of the enzyme's cofactor adenosylcobalamin. Two patients who excrete methylmalonic acid have been shown to have a homozygous nonsense mutation in the methylmalonyl-CoA epimerase gene (MCEE). To further understand the causes of methylmalonic acid excretion, the MCEE gene was sequenced in 229 patients who excreted methylmalonic acid for which no cause was known. Mutations were detected in five patients. Fusion of fibroblast lines from two patients with a homozygous nonsense mutation in MCEE did not result in correction of [14C]propionate incorporation toward control values while the defect in these fibroblasts was complemented by mut, cblA, and cblB fibroblasts. Transfection with wild-type MCEE cDNA resulted in correction of the biochemical phenotype in cells from both patients. These experiments support the hypothesis that a defective epimerase enzyme can be a cause of elevated methylmalonic acid excretion.

O ácido metilmalônico (MMA) é um agente convulsivante endógeno que se acumula na acidemia metilmalônica, um erro inato no metabolismo caracterizado por disfunções neurológicas severas, predispondo ao aparecimento de convulsão. O mecanismo responsável pelas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA envolve a ativação do receptor NMDA. O envolvimento GABAérgico nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA ainda não foi demonstrado. Desta forma, no presente estudo objetivou investigar o envolvimento de macanismos GABAérgicos nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA. Ratos adultos foram injetados (i.c.v.) com muscimol (46 pmol/1 ml), baclofen (0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 mmol/1 ml), MK- 801 (6 nmol/1 ml), piridoxine (2 mmol/ 4 ml) ou salina (0.15 mmol/1 ml). Após trinta minutos, MMA (0.3, 0.1 and 3 mmol/1 ml) ou NaCl (6 mmol/1 ml, i.c.v.) eram injetados. Após estas injeções, os animais eram transferidos imediatamente para um campo aberto, sendo observado o aparecimento de convulsões. Após a avaliação comportamental, foi dosada a atividade glutamato descarboxilase (GAD) em homogeneizado de córtex cerebral, mensurando a quantidade de 14CO2 liberado do L-[14C]-glutamato. As convulsões foram confirmadas pelo estudo eletrencefalográfico. O MMA induziu convulsões do tipo crônicas de forma dose-dependente e reduziu a atividade da GAD no córtex cerebral ex vivo. A atividade da GAD correlacionou-se negativamente com a duração das convulsões (r=- 0.873, P<0.01), mas somente o MK-801 e a piridoxina reverteram à inibição da GAD pelo MMA. Estes resultados sugerem o envolvimento de mecanismos GABAérgicos nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA, e que a inibição da GAD depende da ativação de receptores NMDA ou da proteção da enzima pela piridoxina. Por fim, o presente estudo propôs, de forma inovadora, o envolvimento do sistema GABAérgico nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA e o envolvimento dos receptores NMDA na falha da transmissão GABAérgica. / Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is an endogenous convulsing compound that accumulates in methylmalonic acidemia, an inborn error of the metabolism characterized by severe neurological dysfunction, including seizures. The mechanisms by which MMA causes seizures involves the activation of the NMDA receptors, but whether GABAergic mechanisms are involved in the convulsions induced by MMA is not known. Therefore, in the current study we investigated the involvement of GABAergic mechanisms in the convulsions induced by MMA. Adult rats were injected (i.c.v.) with muscimol (46 pmol/1 ml), baclofen (0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 mmol/1 ml), MK-801 (6 nmol/1 ml), pyridoxine (2 mmol/ 4 ml) or physiological saline (0.15 mmol/1 ml). After thirty minutes, MMA (0.3, 0.1 and 3 mmol/1 ml) or NaCl (6 mmol/1 ml, i.c.v.) was injected. The animals were immediately transferred to an open field and observed for the appearance of convulsions. After behavioral evaluation, glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) activity was determined in cerebral cortex homogenates by measuring the 14CO2 released from L-[14C]-glutamic acid. Convulsions were confirmed by electroencephalographic recording in a subset of animals. MMA caused the appearance of clonic convulsions in a dose-dependent manner and decreased GAD activity in the cerebral cortex ex vivo. GAD activity negatively correlated with duration of MMA-induced convulsions (r=-0.873, P<0.01), in an individual basis. Muscimol, baclofen, MK-801 and pyridoxine prevented MMA-induced convulsions, but only MK-801 and pyridoxine prevented MMA-induced GAD inhibition. These data suggest GABAergic mechanisms are involved in the convulsive action of MMA, and that GAD inhibition by MMA depends on the activation of NMDA receptors or enzyme protection by pyridoxine. While in this study we present novel data about the role of the GABAergic system in MMAinduced convulsions, the central role of NMDA receptors in the neurochemical actions of MMA is further reinforced since they seem to trigger GABAergic failure.

O ácido metilmalônico (MMA) é um agente convulsivante endógeno que se acumula na acidemia metilmalônica, um erro inato no metabolismo caracterizado por disfunções neurológicas severas, predispondo ao aparecimento de convulsão. O mecanismo responsável pelas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA envolve a ativação do receptor NMDA. O envolvimento GABAérgico nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA ainda não foi demonstrado. Desta forma, no presente estudo objetivou investigar o envolvimento de macanismos GABAérgicos nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA. Ratos adultos foram injetados (i.c.v.) com muscimol (46 pmol/1 ml), baclofen (0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 mmol/1 ml), MK- 801 (6 nmol/1 ml), piridoxine (2 mmol/ 4 ml) ou salina (0.15 mmol/1 ml). Após trinta minutos, MMA (0.3, 0.1 and 3 mmol/1 ml) ou NaCl (6 mmol/1 ml, i.c.v.) eram injetados. Após estas injeções, os animais eram transferidos imediatamente para um campo aberto, sendo observado o aparecimento de convulsões. Após a avaliação comportamental, foi dosada a atividade glutamato descarboxilase (GAD) em homogeneizado de córtex cerebral, mensurando a quantidade de 14CO2 liberado do L-[14C]-glutamato. As convulsões foram confirmadas pelo estudo eletrencefalográfico. O MMA induziu convulsões do tipo crônicas de forma dose-dependente e reduziu a atividade da GAD no córtex cerebral ex vivo. A atividade da GAD correlacionou-se negativamente com a duração das convulsões (r=- 0.873, P<0.01), mas somente o MK-801 e a piridoxina reverteram à inibição da GAD pelo MMA. Estes resultados sugerem o envolvimento de mecanismos GABAérgicos nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA, e que a inibição da GAD depende da ativação de receptores NMDA ou da proteção da enzima pela piridoxina. Por fim, o presente estudo propôs, de forma inovadora, o envolvimento do sistema GABAérgico nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA e o envolvimento dos receptores NMDA na falha da transmissão GABAérgica. / Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is an endogenous convulsing compound that accumulates in methylmalonic acidemia, an inborn error of the metabolism characterized by severe neurological dysfunction, including seizures. The mechanisms by which MMA causes seizures involves the activation of the NMDA receptors, but whether GABAergic mechanisms are involved in the convulsions induced by MMA is not known. Therefore, in the current study we investigated the involvement of GABAergic mechanisms in the convulsions induced by MMA. Adult rats were injected (i.c.v.) with muscimol (46 pmol/1 ml), baclofen (0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 mmol/1 ml), MK-801 (6 nmol/1 ml), pyridoxine (2 mmol/ 4 ml) or physiological saline (0.15 mmol/1 ml). After thirty minutes, MMA (0.3, 0.1 and 3 mmol/1 ml) or NaCl (6 mmol/1 ml, i.c.v.) was injected. The animals were immediately transferred to an open field and observed for the appearance of convulsions. After behavioral evaluation, glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) activity was determined in cerebral cortex homogenates by measuring the 14CO2 released from L-[14C]-glutamic acid. Convulsions were confirmed by electroencephalographic recording in a subset of animals. MMA caused the appearance of clonic convulsions in a dose-dependent manner and decreased GAD activity in the cerebral cortex ex vivo. GAD activity negatively correlated with duration of MMA-induced convulsions (r=-0.873, P<0.01), in an individual basis. Muscimol, baclofen, MK-801 and pyridoxine prevented MMA-induced convulsions, but only MK-801 and pyridoxine prevented MMA-induced GAD inhibition. These data suggest GABAergic mechanisms are involved in the convulsive action of MMA, and that GAD inhibition by MMA depends on the activation of NMDA receptors or enzyme protection by pyridoxine. While in this study we present novel data about the role of the GABAergic system in MMAinduced convulsions, the central role of NMDA receptors in the neurochemical actions of MMA is further reinforced since they seem to trigger GABAergic failure.

O ácido metilmalônico (MMA) é um agente convulsivante endógeno que se acumula na acidemia metilmalônica, um erro inato no metabolismo caracterizado por disfunções neurológicas severas, predispondo ao aparecimento de convulsão. O mecanismo responsável pelas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA envolve a ativação do receptor NMDA. O envolvimento GABAérgico nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA ainda não foi demonstrado. Desta forma, no presente estudo objetivou investigar o envolvimento de macanismos GABAérgicos nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA. Ratos adultos foram injetados (i.c.v.) com muscimol (46 pmol/1 ml), baclofen (0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 mmol/1 ml), MK- 801 (6 nmol/1 ml), piridoxine (2 mmol/ 4 ml) ou salina (0.15 mmol/1 ml). Após trinta minutos, MMA (0.3, 0.1 and 3 mmol/1 ml) ou NaCl (6 mmol/1 ml, i.c.v.) eram injetados. Após estas injeções, os animais eram transferidos imediatamente para um campo aberto, sendo observado o aparecimento de convulsões. Após a avaliação comportamental, foi dosada a atividade glutamato descarboxilase (GAD) em homogeneizado de córtex cerebral, mensurando a quantidade de 14CO2 liberado do L-[14C]-glutamato. As convulsões foram confirmadas pelo estudo eletrencefalográfico. O MMA induziu convulsões do tipo crônicas de forma dose-dependente e reduziu a atividade da GAD no córtex cerebral ex vivo. A atividade da GAD correlacionou-se negativamente com a duração das convulsões (r=- 0.873, P<0.01), mas somente o MK-801 e a piridoxina reverteram à inibição da GAD pelo MMA. Estes resultados sugerem o envolvimento de mecanismos GABAérgicos nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA, e que a inibição da GAD depende da ativação de receptores NMDA ou da proteção da enzima pela piridoxina. Por fim, o presente estudo propôs, de forma inovadora, o envolvimento do sistema GABAérgico nas convulsões induzidas pelo MMA e o envolvimento dos receptores NMDA na falha da transmissão GABAérgica. / Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is an endogenous convulsing compound that accumulates in methylmalonic acidemia, an inborn error of the metabolism characterized by severe neurological dysfunction, including seizures. The mechanisms by which MMA causes seizures involves the activation of the NMDA receptors, but whether GABAergic mechanisms are involved in the convulsions induced by MMA is not known. Therefore, in the current study we investigated the involvement of GABAergic mechanisms in the convulsions induced by MMA. Adult rats were injected (i.c.v.) with muscimol (46 pmol/1 ml), baclofen (0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 mmol/1 ml), MK-801 (6 nmol/1 ml), pyridoxine (2 mmol/ 4 ml) or physiological saline (0.15 mmol/1 ml). After thirty minutes, MMA (0.3, 0.1 and 3 mmol/1 ml) or NaCl (6 mmol/1 ml, i.c.v.) was injected. The animals were immediately transferred to an open field and observed for the appearance of convulsions. After behavioral evaluation, glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) activity was determined in cerebral cortex homogenates by measuring the 14CO2 released from L-[14C]-glutamic acid. Convulsions were confirmed by electroencephalographic recording in a subset of animals. MMA caused the appearance of clonic convulsions in a dose-dependent manner and decreased GAD activity in the cerebral cortex ex vivo. GAD activity negatively correlated with duration of MMA-induced convulsions (r=-0.873, P<0.01), in an individual basis. Muscimol, baclofen, MK-801 and pyridoxine prevented MMA-induced convulsions, but only MK-801 and pyridoxine prevented MMA-induced GAD inhibition. These data suggest GABAergic mechanisms are involved in the convulsive action of MMA, and that GAD inhibition by MMA depends on the activation of NMDA receptors or enzyme protection by pyridoxine. While in this study we present novel data about the role of the GABAergic system in MMAinduced convulsions, the central role of NMDA receptors in the neurochemical actions of MMA is further reinforced since they seem to trigger GABAergic failure.

Orientador: Roger Frigério Castilho / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-20T07:07:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Melo_DanielaRodriguesde_D.pdf: 21069496 bytes, checksum: f3406a56ba7ffca25021b4803fc73a92 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: A acidemia metilmalônica é uma desordem metabólica hereditária envolvendo uma deficiência na atividade da enzima metilmalonil-CoA mutase, com resultante acúmulo de ácido metilmalônico (MMA) no organismo dos pacientes. Há evidências de comprometimento do metabolismo energético mitocondrial por MMA levando à neurodegeneração. Neste estudo avaliou-se o efeito in vitro de MMA no consumo de oxigênio por mitocôndrias isoladas de cérebro de rato na presença de diferentes substratos para a cadeia respiratória. MMA (1-10 mM) inibiu fortemente a respiração mantida por glutamato ou succinato. Nós confirmamos, por meio de experimentos sobre o transporte mitocondrial de succinato, que o efeito inibitório do MMA na respiração mantida por succinato deve-se à inibição do transportador mitocondrial de dicarboxilatos, impedindo a captação de succinato pela mitocôndria. Medidas do transporte mitocondrial de glutamato revelaram que o efeito do MMA na respiração mitocondrial mantida por glutamato não está relacionado à inibição da captação deste substrato pela mitocôndria. Enquanto o MMA mostrou um fraco efeito inibitório sobre a atividade das enzimas glutamato desidrogenase e aspartato transaminase, a atividade da 'alfa'-cetoglutarato desidrogenase foi significativamente inibida por MMA (Ki = 3,65 mM). Medidas do transporte mitocondrial de 'alfa'-cetoglutarato mostraram que o MMA extramitocondrial pode ser trocado pelo 'alfa'-cetoglutarato intramitocondrial, depletando este substrato da matriz mitocondrial, com consequente inibição da respiração mantida por glutamato. Nós observamos que organelas isoladas de cérebro podem acumular aproximadamente o triplo da concentração de MMA presente no meio extramitocondrial. Em adição, a inibição pelo MMA do consumo de oxigênio por fragmentos de cérebro de rato foi parcialmente prevenida pela presença de malato. Os efeitos in vivo do MMA foram estudados por meio das medidas de respiração e produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio em mitocôndrias isoladas de cérebro de ratos jovens cronicamente tratados (ip, 15 d) com MMA. Nenhuma diferença foi observada entre as amostras controle e tratadas com MMA, indicando que o tratamento in vivo com MMA não leva à disfunção mitocondrial permanente. Ainda, estudos sobre o efeito do MMA na viabilidade e metabolismo de células neuronais e gliais foram realizados. Na linhagem neuronal tumoral PC12, o MMA diminuiu a viabilidade celular após 24h de tratamento. Os parâmetros de potencial de membrana mitocondrial e respiração foram avaliados após 7h de tratamento com MMA. MMA inibiu a respiração nas células intactas, porém, não alterou a respiração nas células permeabilizadas, nas quais não há restrição de substratos. A viabilidade de células de glioblastoma humano, U-87MG, não foi afetada pelo tratamento com MMA. Já em astrócitos de cérebro de rato em cultura primária exposta ao MMA, a viabilidade e área celular foram reduzidas significativamente e alterações morfológicas também foram notadas. Tais observações nas células gliais primárias sugerem que as células tumorais sejam mais resistentes aos efeitos deletérios do MMA. Em conjunto, estes resultados indicam que o efeito inibitório de MMA no metabolismo oxidativo mitocondrial pode ser atribuído à inibição concomitante de enzimas específicas e transportadores, limitando a disponibilidade de substratos para as vias metabólicas mitocondriais / Abstract: Methylmalonic acidemia is an inherited metabolic disorder involving a deficiency in the activity of the enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase or its cofactor 5'-deoxyadenosylcobalamin that results in an accumulation of methylmalonate (MMA) in the body. There is evidence that MMA impairs mitochondrial oxidative metabolism, leading to neurodegeneration. In this study we evaluated the in vitro effect of MMA on oxygen consumption by isolated rat brain mitochondria in the presence of different respiratory chain substrates. MMA (1-10 mM) strongly inhibited glutamate-supported and succinatesupported respiration. We confirmed that the inhibitory effect of MMA on succinatesupported respiration is due to inhibition of the mitochondrial dicarboxylate transporter by MMA, blocking succinate uptake by mitochondria. Glutamate transport measurements revealed that the MMA effect on glutamate-supported respiration is not due to inhibition of mitochondrial uptake of this substrate. While MMA showed a weak inhibitory effect on glutamate dehydrogenase and aspartate transaminase, _'alfa'-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase activity was significantly inhibited by MMA (Ki = 3.65 mM). 'alfa'-ketoglutarate transport measurements showed that an exchange can take place between extramitochondrial MMA and intramitochondrial 'alfa'-ketoglutarate, depleting this substrate and consequently causing inhibition of glutamate-supported respiration. We observed that isolated brain organelles can accumulate nearly three times the concentration of extramitochondrial MMA. In addition, MMA inhibition of respiration by diced rat brain tissue was partially prevented by malate. MMA effects in vivo were studied by measuring respiration and reactive oxygen species generation in isolated brain mitochondria from young rats chronically injected (ip, 15 d) with MMA. No differences were observed between control and MMA-treated samples, indicating that in vivo MMA treatment does not lead to permanent mitochondrial dysfunction. In addition, a study into the effect of MMA on the viability and metabolism of neuronal and glial cells was carried out. In the PC12 neuronal tumor cell line, MMA decreased cell viability after 24 hours of treatment. Mitochondrial membrane potential and respiration were evaluated after 7 hours of MMA treatment. MMA inhibited respiration in intact cells but did not alter respiration in permeabilized cells, where there is no substrate deprivation. Cell viability of U-87MG human glioblastoma cells was not affected by MMA treatment. However, in cells from a primary culture of rat cerebral astrocytes, viability and cell area were significantly reduced and morphological alterations were also noted. The most evident effects of MMA were observed in primary cells, suggesting that tumor cells are more resistant to the deleterious effects of MMA. Taken together, these results indicate that the inhibitory effect of MMA on mitochondrial oxidative metabolism can be ascribed to the concurrent inhibition of specific enzymes and transporters, limiting the availability of substrates for mitochondrial metabolic pathways / Doutorado / Biologia Estrutural, Celular, Molecular e do Desenvolvimento / Doutor em Ciências

No description available.

Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency has been difficult to diagnose, mainly due to the vitamin's lack of biological significance in serum in which it is usually assayed. This research has investigated the marker of vitamin B₁₂/cobalt (Co) deficiency in sheep, methylmalonic acid (MMA), in comparison with serum and liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in farm situations where vitamin B₁₂ deficiency is expected in order to establish more accurate reference ranges for serum and liver vitamin B₁₂, and MMA. In addition, an attempt was made to ascertain the vitamin B₁₂ requirements of preruminant (PR) lambs, and to determine whether metabolic demand for vitamin B₁₂ influences tissue concentrations. Furthermore, since the vitamin is active in biological tissues in form of its coenzymes, 5’ -deoxyadenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin, a preliminary assessment of variation in the distribution of these coenzymes in liver in different situations has been sought. The first trial was set up to find out if the addition of propionate to the PR lamb's diet stimulated the uptake and/or storage of vitamin B₁₂ in the liver as a reflection of the need to deal with the incoming propionate. Sixteen ten day old lambs (Dorset Down/Coopworth cross-bred) were housed indoors soon after birth and fed on milk replacer. For half of the lambs 7.5 % (w:w) of the milk powder was replaced by propionate. Within each group, four lambs were treated with 250 µg vitamin B₁₂ twice weekly. Supplementation with vitamin B₁₂ increased liver concentrations from ~250 to ~900 nmol/kg fresh tissue, but there was no effect of propionate. Propionate addition did, however, result in increased plasma vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in vitamin B₁₂ supplemented groups, values being 3323 and 2355 pmol/l in propionate supplemented and control groups, respectively. This suggested that diet could influence plasma vitamin B₁₂ concentrations. An attempt was made to quantify the PR lamb's ability to absorb vitamin B₁₂ from the alimentary tract by comparing the ability of intra-muscular (IM) and oral vitamin B₁₂ to raise plasma and liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations. Twenty-seven three to four day old lambs from a farm with marginal Co status were housed indoors and fed on milk replacer. They were divided into three groups: control (n=3), IM treatment (n=12) and oral treatment (n=12). The two treatment groups were further subdivided into five sub-groups. These received, respectively, 0.2 (n=3), 0.4 (n=2), 0.8 (n=2), 1.6 (n=2) and 3.2 µg OH-cbl/d (n=3). The oral groups received tenfold the amount of the comparable IM groups, on the assumption that if oral absorption of the vitamin is about 10 % both groups would show similar increases in plasma and liver vitamin B₁₂ concentration. None of the IM groups showed any significant change in plasma or liver vitamin B₁₂. In the oral groups only the group on the highest dose of vitamin B₁₂, viz 32 µg/d, showed increases in plasma and liver concentrations. It was concluded that either absorption of vitamin B₁₂ was greater than 10 % or that the vitamin was retained better when administered orally. The amount retained in the livers of the lambs in the highest oral group was calculated to represent ~ 7.5 % of the dose. In a follow-up 24 h trial, 14 of the above lambs were divided into three groups: Control (n=3), oral (n=6) and IM (n=5) treatment. The IM group received 3.2 µg OH-cbl and the oral group tenfold the amount as single doses at 0800 h. Blood samples were taken at regular intervals throughout the 24 h period and assayed for vitamin B₁₂, Vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in the IM group rose steeply within the first hour after injection to a concentration that was calculated to reflect 100 % uptake of the vitamin. It rose more slowly over about 8 h in the oral group. From the area under the curve absorption of the oral dose was estimated to be ~ 7 %. The next experiment involved a farm where Co deficiency had been reported previously. In the first year, 50 pregnant two-tooth Half-bred ewes were divided randomly into two groups of 25. One group received a Co bullet plus 1000 µg OH-cb1 IM, the other group remained unsupplemented. In the following year the trial was repeated. Ewes from the previous year's trial (by then four-tooths) were augmented by a new cohort of pregnant two-tooths to make up numbers to 75. After lambing the lambs were divided into four groups: first by their dams' vitamin B₁₂ treatment, then half of each group received injections of vitamin B₁₂ at approximately three weekly intervals while the other half remained untreated. The trials lasted about five months, from mid-pregnancy until weaning. Pasture Co was at its lowest at lambing in both years, 0.09 and 0.10µg/g DM, respectively. In the first year, vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in the untreated ewes rose from 340 to 950 pmol/l in plasma and decreased in liver from 330 to 170 nmol/kg fresh tissue. In the Co treated group, vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in plasma rose from 500 to 1550 pmol/l and in liver from 310 to 560 nmol/kg fresh tissue. In the second year, vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in serum in the unsupplemented groups fell from 500 to 260 pmol/l around lambing before rising again to starting values at weaning, and liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations fell from 450 at the start to 230 nmol/kg fresh tissue at the end of the trial. Serum vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in the two-tooth supplemented group rose from < 500 to > 3000 pmol/l whereas in the four-tooth supplemented group serum vitamin B₁₂ levels started at ~2800 and rose to nearly 5000 pmol/l. The supplemented four-tooths maintained higher liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations throughout compared to the supplemented two-tooths, viz 680 compared to below 400 at the start and 900 versus 650 nmol/kg fresh tissue at weaning, respectively. MMA in the untreated groups rose to 15 and to 8 µmol/l during early lactation in the first and second years, respectively, whereas MMA in the treated groups stayed below 3 µmol/l in the first season and below 1.5 µmol/l in the second season. There was a live weight response to treatment in the ewes as the unsupplemented groups showed a significantly lower weight gain during the trials than the supplemented groups, viz 10.0 versus 13.6 kg in the first year, and 10.6 versus 13.3 kg in the four-tooths and 9.9 versus 12.1 kg in the two-tooths in the second year. There was also a significant difference in faecal egg count (FEC) in the first year. FEC in the untreated group was higher during lactation than in the treated group, viz 590 versus 170 eggs per gram wet faeces (epg), respectively. In the second year, the two-tooths had a higher FEC than the four-tooths, viz 120 versus 40 epg during the same time span, respectively. While there was a trend for treatment having an effect on FEC similar to that in the first year it was not significant. Supplementation of ewes in the first year increased mean milk vitamin B₁₂ concentrations at lambing from 800 to 1400 pmol/l and at weaning from 1750 to 4000 pmol/l. In the second year, Co bullet treatment increased milk vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in the four-tooths and two-tooths from 1500 and 2300 to 4000 and 2900 pmol/l at lambing, and from 1800 and 1400 to 6200 and 4500 pmol/l at weaning, respectively. Treatment of ewes increased vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in the lambs which were not themselves supplemented. Plasma values in the first year increased from 160 to 325 pmol/l soon after birth and from 650 to 900 pmol/l at weaning, and liver values from 75 to 140 nmol/kg fresh tissue soon after birth and from 150 to 240 nmol/kg fresh tissue at weaning. In the second year, plasma vitamin B₁₂ concentrations increased from 160 to 380 pmol/l soon after birth and from 500 to 700 pmol/l at weaning, and in liver from 130 to 260 nmol/kg fresh tissue soon after birth and from 220 to 340 nmol/kg fresh tissue at weaning. There was also a significant effect of ewe supplementation on lamb MMA in 1997/1998 when values decreased from 19 to 8 µmol/l around the time of rumen development. MMA in the second year stayed below 3 µmol/l throughout in all groups of lambs. There was no difference in LWG between any groups of lambs. FEC was lowest in the group where both ewes and lambs were supplemented and highest in the group where neither ewes nor lambs were treated. Further investigations were conducted on farms in Southland with lambs post-weaning in order to compare changes in serum and liver vitamin B₁₂ with serum MMA and LWG to determine the critical time and level of deficiency. In the first year, three farms with 50 lambs each participated. Lambs from each farm were allocated to five groups of 10 animals each. The first group received a Co bullet at weaning, and each month another group was treated with a Co bullet. The lambs were weighed monthly, and blood and liver samples were taken prior to treatment and each subsequent month from five lambs of the first supplemented group. The trial lasted about four months. Serum vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in lambs at weaning were between 500 and 1000 pmol/l. Although supplementation increased serum levels for the first month this was followed by a drop to near or below starting concentrations. An exception was Farm 3 where serum vitamin B₁₂ concentrations rose again at the end of the trial. Liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations also showed an overall decline from starting levels (200 to 300 nmol/kg fresh tissue) to the end of the trial (100 to 200 nmol/kg fresh tissue). MMA started around 2 µmol/l and reached between 6 and 7 µmol/l in the untreated lambs on Farms 1 and 3 two months after weaning before decreasing to around 3 µmol/l at the end of the trial, whereas the treated lambs maintained MMA concentrations around 2 µmol/l. On Farm 2 MMA started just below 5 µmol/l, decreased to around 1 µmol/l for treated and untreated lambs one month later and rose again to between 2.5 and 4 µmol/l, respectively, at the end of the trial. LWG was below average for all lambs (between 0.20 and 0.04 kg/d except for Farm I in the first month after weaning) but no significant differences were noted between treated and untreated lambs on any of the farms. Another trial was conducted on one of these farms in the following year. One hundred lambs were divided into two groups of 50 each at weaning and sampled monthly for about six months. One group was treated with two Co bullets, the other group remained untreated. Pasture Co was between 0.04 and 0.07 µg/g DM, yet serum levels for the untreated group stayed ~500 pmol/l throughout the trial. Serum vitamin B₁₂ concentrations for the treated group started at ~500 pmol/l, rose to ~2500 pmol/l before falling back to ~2000 pmol/l. Liver vitamin B₁₂ concentrations for the untreated and treated groups were 529 and 427 nmol/kg fresh tissue at weaning, respectively. This decreased for both groups to ~350 nmol/kg fresh tissue one month after weaning. In the untreated lambs liver values decreased further to ~290 nmol/kg fresh tissue whereas they increased to ~450 nmol/kg fresh tissue for the treated group at the end of the trial. MMA concentrations started between 2 and 3 µmol/l for both groups and increased to 4.5 µmol/l for the untreated group one month later before falling back to 3.2 µmol/l. In the treated group MMA decreased to ~1µmol/l and stayed at that level throughout the trial. There was no difference in weight gain. In order to obtain an understanding of the distribution of corrinoids in biological tissues a High Performance Liquid Chromatography method was developed. The sensitivity of the analytical method meant that it was only practical to assay mainly liver samples because of the higher vitamin B₁₂ concentrations than in other tissues. The general finding was that the coenzyme 5’ –deoxyadenosylcobalamin (ado-cbl) constituted the highest proportion of corrinoids in liver (45 %), followed by analogues (28 %), OH-cbl (24 %) and lastly methy1cobalamin (3 %). Ado-cbl did tend to be proportionately higher in supplemented than in unsupplemented animals (56 and 42 %, respectively), whereas biologically non-active analogues tended to be higher in untreated than in treated sheep (29 and 21 %, respectively). It was concluded that in the farm trials Co deficiency was only mild or not present although deficiency would have been predicted from the low vitamin B₁₂ concentrations in serum and liver and from raised MMA values. Therefore, currently used thresholds in New Zealand appear to be too high for vitamin B₁₂, and overseas values for MMA do not seem to be appropriate. Revised marginal ranges of 100 to 200 pmol/l for serum, 100 to 200 nmol/kg fresh tissue for liver and 10 to 20 µmol/l for MMA are suggested. Further, this work shows that Co bullets were effective in elevating blood and liver vitamin B₁₂concentrations for longer than one year. In the trials with preruminant lambs it was found that maintenance requirements were met by the vitamin B₁₂ content of milk replacer. There is evidence from indoor and farm trials that vitamin B₁₂ from milk was much more readily absorbed than vitamin B₁₂ from supplements. It was estimated that suckling lambs probably require between 1200 and 4000 pmol vitamin B₁₂/d, depending on age.